TS 1105 

.B44 


1911 











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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/papermakerspocke01beve 



-43 



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ADVERTISEMENTS. 



NEW PATENT 

Refining Engine. 



EMBRACING MANY IMPROVEMENTS 
= OF GREAT UTILITY. = 




Each disc is adjusted independently by special gearing. 
The case is made in halves to facilitate easy access. 

Greatly increased cutting or beating power. 

Specially designed to deal with thick pulp. 

Ring oiling blocks and ball thrust bearings. 



BERTRAMS LIMITED 

Paper Mill Engineers 

SCIENNES, EDINBURGH. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Printings 
(White) 

Envelope 
Cartridges 

(Angular or Square). 

IMITATION 




Printings 
(Coloured) 

Drawing 
Cartridges. 

PARCHMENTS. 



Mill No. 221. 



ESTABLISHED 
OVER 100 YEARS. 



OLIVE BROS. 

- LIMITED, - 

PAPER MANUFACTURERS. 



TINTED WRITINGS— Glazed Finish. 

CREAM-LAI DS. HOSIERY PAPERS, GLAZED AND 
UNGLAZED CASINGS, BODY PAPERS. 

White and Coloured Super Calendered Printings. 

Demy 15 17 19 21 24 26 28 SO 
D. Demy 30 36 40 48 60 
D. Crown 21 24 27 30 36 
D. Royal 40 48 60 
Quad Crown 48 60 

Self Blues and Friction-Glazed Blacks. 



FINE WHITE 
PRINTINGS 

Stocked at Mill In 



Woolfold Mills, 


19, Cannon Street 


BURY, Lancashire. 


MANCHESTER. 


Telegram.— " OLIVE," Bury. 


— 


Telephone No. 80. 


Telephone No. 1898 City. 


WHOLES^ 


XE ONLY 



SAMPLES AND QUOTATIONS ON APPLICATION 



ADVERTISEMFNTS. 



COMPLETE CONTROL FROM 
THE KEYBOARD. 



Column Finder 
Paragrapher 




Practically every operation required in producing type^ 
writing on tne bmith Premier Typewriter is centred in 
the keyboard. This complete control, right under the 
operator's fingers, makes for speed and accuracy, and is 
an exclusive feature of the 1910 Model 

Smith Premier 



Other exclusive Smith Premier Features, such as complete straight-line 

keyboards, combination paragrapher and column finder, and removable 

and interchangeable platens are fully explained in our descriptive 

Catalogue, free on request. 



THE SMITH PREMIER TYPEWRITER CO., 

Smith Premier House, 
6 & 7, Queen Street, Cheapside, ILC» 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



The Kellner - Partington 
Paper Pulp Co., Limited. 

HEAD OFFICE: 

1 1 , New Market Lane, Brown Street, 
Manchester. 



Finest qualities Bleached 
Sulphite Pulps. 

Easy Bleaching Sulphite. 

Extra Strong Soda Pulp. 

Mechanical Pulps. 



Super Calendered Fine Printing Papers. 

Glazed and Machine-finished Printings in various 
qualities. 

Glazed and Unglazed Wrapping and Bag Papers. 

Parchment Papers. 

M. G. Caps and Casings. 

Kraft Brown Glazed and Unglazed. 



SECOND AND ENLARGED EDITION. 
THE 

PAPERMAKERS' 
POCKET BOOK. 



SPECIALLY COMPILED FOR 

PAPER MILL OPERATIVES, ENGINEERS, 

CHEMISTS, AND OFFICE OFFICIALS. 



By JAMES BEVERIDGE. 



NEW YORK: 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 

23 Murray and 27 warren Streets. 

LONDON : 

M c CORQUODALE & CO., LTD., 

40, COLEMAN STREET, E.C 



1911. 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.] 






/9 d-f-3 



HZ'Wl? 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



i CHINA CLAY. 

r 

BEST BRANDS. 

\ Sulphate of Alumina. 

ALL GRADES. 



H.D.POCHIN & CO., Ltd., 

MANCHESTER. 



ALSING & Co., 



•<?>» LIMITED. 



Sole Agents for I ' 1 0, Cannon Street, 




LONDON, E. 







CHEMICAL 
Sjjgjjfe^ AND 

X. B. mechanical Sweden. 

* Soda Pulp. Wood Pulp. 

i 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THE 



"DIAMOND" 

SELF-CLAMP 

CUTTING MACHINE. 




PAYNE <S SONS 

(OTLEY) LTD., 

OTLEY, LONDON, AND GLASGOW. 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 

HPHIS book has been compiled with a view to 
A place before Paper-Mill Workers generally 
concise information relating to the Engineering, 
Chemical, and other departments of Paper Mill^ 

The author in his daily work has long felt the 
need of such a collection of data as is here given, 
and many years ago began to collect such items as 
,were useful, with a view to publication. The present 
attempt to supply what is most useful is somewhat 
imperfect, owing partly to the character of the work 
itself and the wide range of subject which it covers ; 
but the author hopes to bring it up in the course 
of time to the standard of other works of a similar 
» class. Errors have doubtless crept into the text, 
and the author will thank any readers who may 
point them out or offer suggestions on the work 
itself for incorporation in future editions. 

The author desires to thank those friends, too 
numerous to name individually, for the assistance 
they have rendered him in revising the text, &c. 

London, March, 1901. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Ciebers Code 



ENGLISH 



FRENCH 



GERMAN 



SPANISH 



London New York 

^. , — j 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 

THE fact that the first edition has long been 
exhausted has induced the Author to prepare 
this, the second edition, on a larger scale with 
increased care. The book in its present form contains 
.much new matter of a technical character, especially 
that relating to the preparation of paper-making 
fibres from wood and other raw plants by the sulphite , 
soda, and sulphate processes. That part dealing with 
the Soda Eecovery and the preparation and com- 
position of the Soda lyes has been greatly amplified. 

A new chapter has been added on the subject of 
loadings and their properties, &c. 

Special care has been devoted to the technical 
data culled from different sources, and only those 
items have been given which have been found 
to be reliable. It is hoped by the Author that the 
new data and other information will add to the value 
and usefulness of the book, 

January, 1911. 



ADVEKTISEMENTS. 



CAST-IRON TANKS 

DELIVERED FROM STOCK IN STANDARDISED SECTIONS 
READY FOR FIXING. 

ALSO VALVES and PIPEWORK. 




FIRE PROTECTION. 

The Grinnell Automatic Sprinkler and Fire Alarm. 

Armoured Fire-resisting Doors. 

Pumps, Chemical Extincteurs, and Buckets. 



MATHER & PLATT, Ltd., 



Park Works, 

Manchester. 



Queen Anne's Chambers, 
Westminster, S.W. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Weights and Measures with French Equivalents. — 
Measurement of Surfaces and Capacities. — Wages Table from 
Id. to Is. per hour up to 72 hours per week. — Sizes of Papers 
Drawing, Loan, Account Book and Writings, Copyings 
Printings, Plate Papers, Chart Papers, Cartridge Papers 
Sugar and Groceries, Browns, Small-hands, Blottings, Mis 
cellaneous. — Sizes of Boards ; Cardboards, Bristol Boards 
Glazed Pressing Boards, Writing Parchments, Portfolios 
Binding Vellums, Millboards, Strawboards. — German Classifi 
cation and Sizes of Papers. — Equivalent Sizes and Weights 
of Writing Papers, Printing Papers and Wrapping Papers. — 
Prices per ton and cwt., from Id. to 5d. per lb., less discounts 
from I3- per cent, to 15 per cent. — Table showing Weight of 
a Ream from Weight of One Sheet in Grains. — British Trade 
Customs. — American Trade Customs. — Sizes of Papers 
Current in France and Belgium. 

CHAPTER 11. 

Tables : Comparison of degrees Fahrenheit, Centigrade, 
and Reaumur. — Heating Liquids by Steam. — Definition of a 
British Thermal Unit, of Latent Heat, of Specific Heat. — 
Tables of Specific Heats of some Metals and Solids, of Liquids, 
of Gases. — Properties of Saturated Steam. — Formulae for 
Calculating the Amount of Steam required for Heating Liquids 
by Steam, for Hot Bleaching, for Digesting Esparto, Straw, 
&c., for Digesting Wood (Soda Process), for Digesting Wood 
(Sulphite Process), for Drying Pulp and Paper on the Machine. 



CHAPTER III. 

Chemical Treatment of Rags, Jute, Esparto, Straw, Bamboo, 
Megass (or Crushed Sugar Cane), Wood (Soda Process), Wood 
(Sulphate Process), Wood (Sulphite Process). — -Boiling. — 
Reclaiming the S0. 2 from Sulphite Digesters, Soda Recover}', 
Results of Yaryan Quadruple Evaporator, Composition of 
Recovered Soda Liquors, Strength of Waste Soda Lyes from 
Wood Pulp, Loss of Alkali, Preparation of Caustic Soda 
Lyes. — Mechanical Wood Pulp Manufacture : German Prac- 
tice, American Practice. — Brown Wood Pulp. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Coloured Papers. — Properties of the Cotton, Linen, and 
Jute Fibres. — Dyeing Paper Pulp. — Combination of Colours. 
— Substantive or Basic Dyes. — Adjective or Acid Dyes. — 
Mordants and their Uses. — Sulphate of Alumina and the 
Alums, Acetate of Alumina, Tin Salts, Iron Salts, Copper 
Salts, Lead Salts, Tannin Mordants. — Aniline Dyes : Magenta, 
Metanil and other Yellows, Water Blue, Eosine, Rose Bengal, 
Safranine, Phosphine, Alkali Blue. — Vegetable Dyes : Yellow, 
Red, Blue, Brown, Blacks. — Lakes or Pigments : Chrome 
Yellow, Ochres, Venetian Red, Ultramarine Blue, Prussian 
or Paste Blue, Umbers. 

CHAPTER V. 

General Paper Mill Analysis : Table of the Chemical 
Elements with their Atomic Weights. — Molecular Weights and 
Percentage Composition of Compounds Important to the Paper 
Industry. — Alkalimetry ; Valuation of Soda Ash, Caustic 
Soda, and Alkaline Liquors. — Acidimetry : Bisulphites of 
Soda, Lime or Magnesia ; Sulphurous Acid in Kiln Gases. — 
Analysis of Rosin Size, viz., Alkali, Combined and Free Rosin. 
— Bleaching Powder and Bleach Liquors. — Examination of 



Ultramarine : Colouring Power, Resistance to Acids and Alums. 
— Analysis of Alums ; Aluminous Cake and Alumina -Ferric 
Cake. — Salt Cake. — Soda Smelt (Sulphate Process). — China 
Clays. — Starch.— Rosin. — Water for Sulphates, Chlorides, 
Iron ; Temporary, Permanent, and Total Hardness. — Exami- 
nation of Coal for Moisture, Coke, Ash, and Volatile Matter ; 
of Chimney Gases. — Determination of Temperature of Flues, 
Fisher's Calorimeter. — Paper Testing : Absolute Strength of 
Paper. — Resistance to Folding or Crumpling. — Thickness. — 
Mineral Matter or Ash. — Microscopical Examination. — 
Determination of Mechanical Wood. — Strength of Sizing and 
Nature of Sizing. — Moisture in Wood Pulp, Sampling, &c. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Loading Materials. — China Clay. — Sulphate of Lime.- 
Talc. — Asbestine. — Blanc -Fixe and Barytes. — Satin White. 



CHAPTER VII. 

General Tables : Composition of Chemicals used in Paper- 
making — Soda Ash, Caustic Soda, Cream, White 60%, 70%, 
and 77%. — Sulphate of Alumina, Aluminous Cake. — Sp. Gr. 
of Solutions of Sodium Carbonate. — Sp. Gr. of Solutions of 
Caustic Soda. — Sp. Gr. of Solutions of Cream Caustic, White 
60%, and white 70%, Caustic in Water. — Sp. Gr. of Solutions 
of Bleaching Powder in Water. — Sp. Gr. of Solutions of Pure 
Sulphate of Alumina in Water. — Sp. Gr. of Solutions of S0 2 in 
Water. — Sp. Gr. of the Saturated Solutions of some Salts. — 
Sp. Gr. of Hydrochloric Acid. — Sp. Gr. of Sulphuric Acid. — ■ 
Comparison of Degrees Baume, Specific Gravity, and Degrees 
Twaddell.— Weight of One Cubic Foot of Materials. 



CHAPTER jVIII. 

Speeds, &c, of Paper Mill Machinery : Rag Chopper, Rag 
Duster, Esparto Willows, Rag and Straw Boilers, Esparto 
Boilers, Soda Wood Pulp Digesters, Sulphite Pulp Digesters. — 
Kollergangs. — Pochers. — Breakers. — Beating Engines: Hollan- 
der Type, Umpherston's, Reed's, Bertram's, " Acme." — 
Refiners : Pearson & Bertram's, Marshall's. — Strainers : 
Roger's Wa.ndel, Reinicke & Jasper's Revolving, White's 
Oscillating. — Paper Machine Speeds, &c. : Steam Engines. — 
Stuff Chest Agitato rs. — Back Water Pumps, Stuff Pump, 
Vacuum Pump. — Save All. — Felt Washer Rolls. — Ventilator. — 
Damping Brush. — Roll Calender. — Cutter. — Power required 
to drive a Fourdrinier Machine and Accessories. 



(3§4$g 



CHAPTER I. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, WITH METRICAL 
EQUIVALENTS. 



Avoirdupois Weight. 



16 drams 
16 ounces 
28 lbs 
112 „ 
20 cwts. 



ounce 

lb. 

qr. cwt. 

cwt. 

ton 



28 3493 grammes. 
453-59 



27-34 grains 



24 grains ... 
20 dwts. 
12 ozs. 

5,760 grains 



1 dram. 
43 7 1 grains 



= 12,700-00 
= 50,802-38 
= 1,016,047-50 
7,000 grains = 
1 oz. 



lib. 



Troy Weight. 



1 lb. troy. 



1 dwt. = 1-555 grammes. 

1 oz. = 31-103 

1 lb. = 373-242 

480 grains == 1 oz. troy. 



Apothecaries' Weight. 



= 1 scruple. 

= 1 dram. 

= 1 ounce. 

= 1 lb. 



20 minims or grains 

3 scruples ... ... 

8 drams 

12 ounces ... ... ... 

Liquid Measure 

4 gills ... 

2 pints 

4 quarts 

1 imperial gallon = 277 
water (5_ 
1 litre = 7-04 gills = 1-76 pints = 0-88 quart = 0-22 



= 1 pint = 0-28394 litres. 
= 1 quart = 1*13575 ,, 
= 1 gallon = 4-543 ,, 

463 cubic inches = 10 lbs. of 

\ 62° Fah. 



Wine Measure. 



2 pints ... 
4 quarts ... 
42 gallons 
l£ tierces 
1| hogsheads 
1^ puncheons 
2 pipes ... 



1 quart. 
1 gallon. 
1 tierce. 
1 hogshead. 
1 puncheon. 
1 pipe. 
1 tun. 



Ale and Beer Measure. 



2 


pints ... 


4 


quarts ... 


9 


gallons... 


2 


firkins . . . 


2 


kilderkins 


n 


barrels 


n 


hogsheads 


H 


puncheons 



1 quart. 
1 gallon. 
1 firkin. 
1 kilderkin. 
1 barrel. 
1 hogshead. 
1 puncheon. 
1 butt. 



Measure or Capacity (Dry Measure). 

8 pints = 1 gallon. 

2 gallons ... ... ... ... ... =1 peck. 

4 pecks ... ... ... ... ... =1 bushel. 

8 bushels ... ... ... ... ... =1 quarter. 

5 quarters ... ... =1 wey. 

2 weys ... ... ... =1 last. 

One cubic foot of water at 62° Fah. weighs = 62-355 lbs., and 
contains 6-2355 gallons, and nearly 1,000 ounces avoirdupois. 



Long Measure. 



12 inches ... ... =1 foot . = 


0-3048 metres. 


3 feet ... ... =1 yard = 


0-9144 „ 


2 yards (or 6 feet) = 1 fathom = 


1-8267 „ 


2| fathoms ... =1 pole = 


5-0291 ,. 


40 poles ... ... — 1 furlong = 


201-16 „ 


8 furlongs ... =1 mile = 


1,609-315 .. 


1 statute mile = 1,760 yards = 880 fathoms 


= 320 poles = 8 



furlongs 

1 nautical mile or knot = 6,080 feet. 

1 cable length = 120 fathoms. 7-92 inches = 1 link. 

1 chain = 100 links = Q6 feet = 22 yards. 

1 metre = 3-2809 feet = 39-37 inches. 



Square Measure. 



144 

144 

9 


parts 
square 

J5 


! inches 
feet 


272i 
40 


5) 


rods 


4 




roods 


160 


„ 


rods 


4,840 
43,560 


;> 


yards 
feet 


10 


}J 


chains 


640 


icres 





= 1 square inch. 



1 acre. 



foot. 

yard. 

rod or pole. 

rood. 



1 square mils. 



Solid or CubIc Measure. 

1,728 cubic inches = 1 eubic foot. 

27 „ feet = 1 „ yard. 

40 „ „ of rough or I _ -. ton or load 
50 „ „ „ hewn timber} ~ L ton or load> 
42 „ „ „ timber ... = 1 shipping ton. 

108 „ „ = 1 stack of wood. 

128 „ „ = 1 cord „ „ 

216 „ „ = 1 cubic fathom of wood. 

165 „ „ = 1 St. Petersburg Stand- 
ard of sawn timber. 
1 cubic yard = 0*764513 cubic metre. 
1 cubic metre = 35*31658 cubic feet. 

Coal. 

112 lbs = 1 cwfc. 

2 cwts. ... ... ... ... ... = 1 sack. 

10 sacks = 1 ton. 

21 tons 4 cwts. ... ... ... . . . = 1 barge or keel. 

20 keels or 424 tons ... ... ... = 1 shipload. 

140 cwts. or 7 tons ... ... ... = 1 room. 

Coke. 

4 bushels = 1 sack. 

12 sacks ... ... ... ... ... — 1 chaldron. 

21 chaldrons = 1 score. 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES AND CAPACITIES. 

Area of a square = side 2 

„ „ a rectangle, rhombus or rhomboid = side x per- 
pendicular height. 
,, „ a triangle = half the side x perpendicular height. 
„ „ a circle = 3*141593 x radius 2 

„ ,, an ellipse = 3*141593 x major semi-axis x minor 
semi-axis. 
Surface of a cube = 6 x edge 2 

„ „ a sphere = 12*5f>6370 x radius 2 

„ „ a cylinder = 6*283185 x radius of base x sum of 

height and radius of base. 
„ „ a spherical segment == 6*283185 x height x radius 
of circular base. 
Volume of a cube = edge 3 

„ „ a sphere = |x 3*141593 x radius 3 

„ „ a cylinder = 3*141593 x height x radius 2 

„ „ a prism = base area x height. 

„ s , a cone or pyramid = i X base area x height. 



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6 
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BQCQOOO!»(»aOJiOffiCiOOOOOOHHHHHHN 




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■OHNMiO^NOOOHOHM^iCtOQOQOHHOlM^O 




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— 


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-ti i: io m m io m m in m n a c c © to c o o © « h t> n 



7 
WAGES TABLE. -Kate per Hour in Pence. 



r6 


. HiNrol'tf-'I'f-'lw:!-* -<|-*-i]^imI-* -H|-*-i|iNM|'<t — >|-r»<— ilc^iroi-^- — i|-^f — i|MMiTf — '|^i— i|o«ifO|T! 

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(o'O O O O H H N (M CO CC « t« tC O O O O l> l> N « » 5) © O 


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T3(NfOaOCOOOHfflH^C.Nt>COOKaiHOH'<iiOiNI> 


73 

1X5 


«5OOOOHH(M*l(MCCC0^^Ci0i0tDaNNl>CC»aO 




--+3COOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 








iiOOOOHHHNINWOJCO^^iOiaiSia^NNNCOCOO 


^©OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOO 


73 


• -'|'*- , l'*- | l'x -"I'M -"I'M H'N —I'M H<m -i<n -"I'M —km Him -"I'M -"I'M 

"3(MM^OHOOMNO-*r.H©on^OT)i©HOont> 


icOOOOHHH(NNMf0C0^-*TH»0i0i»«050l>l>t>C0(B 


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oiOOCOHHHINJiKNCOaj'W-^^TH'SiSSOOffiNSSQO 


«fioooooocoooooooooooooooooo 




t^M^QOO^WO^OOOTHOOO^OOO^XOTfiXOTH® 


5 


«COOOHHHN«(NKMS-*^tJ(CCOCOO!ONNN 




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cb 


. MN'MlwsiT'HiCM-'l'* Ml-* ■*>■— |tji K|Tf-i|(M -i— mw— |im -itji rein- -kv-i-^ raw-or-ito 

•dH « M l> H ffl O O !M (D Q H i.O S O i" CO O S N H M O O fl 


iOOOOOHHHIMWINMCOCO^^^iOiOiOiOOCOCOIs 


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73 

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^HIMCOt-OMiOJSO^NHINCfflHTHCOHCOOOHiSQO 

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^OOOOCOCOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO 


CO 


. — llM-lt— I 1 *— I'M^It* — irt<-|(M:CW -"IttHM^W -Hl-yHM.-OIT -W— Iimmit -"W Hlcirck 
■OriNCOOOH^NOflO'JDHMCOOrdNOHOKHW 
r-l l-H r-l r-i 


»00000— I—it— 1 H M Ul (M d CO CO CO ^ i< -* Tf »o o m lO s 


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HNSJWi-i NCO^iOO^OOfflOHISMTiHlSCOSOOOOHflM 
HHr-nHHHHnHJi01J|(M 



8 
WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 



•6 
10 


-W-HKNMW rH|^l— .I-M7CI-* -i^t -dOtfOkf H^-iBwIt* -*|*MNMH" -i|'*-h|(M«|t1< 

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1 — I T—l T— 1 l—l 




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tCOOCOOOHiOOCOOOOmOMt-OiOOMNO^fflWhO 
t— 1 rH rH r- 1 






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. -llrJt-illMKlTr H^—'IO«^»"t — |-<t-i|(M«lT — 'l-r— <|C-irO|-r ~>\T -C X|t — <|t*— i |(NMH> 

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rH rH rH rH 


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^i0CflNQ0CiCHWC0rHi0<X>l>00a5O-lCq«THi0(»NQ0 
WiMMC^iM(NMo:cOiMo;COCOWC5«-^t(Itj<^ t h^I'*'^'t(i 



9 
WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 



oiHHCqNOOM-*^THiOlO©^l>NCOQOQOOOOO 
<h3 t-H t-H tH t— I t— It-Hi— It— It- It— It— It— It— It-Hi— I t— I t— It— I t— I t— I H r- 1 



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I— I T— I T— I T-H 



jiCSOOOHHNffKMCOCO^TrlTfliOOtOOtONhOOGO 
C^OOtHtHt-HtHtHtHt-HtHtHt-Ht-Ht-ItHt-Ht-Ht-HtHt-Ht-Ht-HtHt-H 



CD O CO b- O 

s50)CO^S!C300HHHC(|(MWMW'*tHt)H>0>OiOCOi»N 

^OOOOOT-lT-lT-HTHT-lT-lT-HTHrHT-TT-lT-lT-HT— I T-H T-H T-H T-l rH 



^ 



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^OOOOOOOOi-HTHT-HTHTHTHT-lTHrHTHT-HTHrHTHTHTH 



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x!S!0t>NS00Q000n©C5OOOHHHN««MMM^ 
*-t3©OOOOOOOOOOt-Ht^t-Ht-It-Ht-Ht-HtHt-Ht-Ht-Ht-Ht-H 



BiOiSiOtCCOBSSb-KOOQOOrOOOOO 
hJOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOt-HtHt-Ht-h 



CO 



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q I t(I lO lO lO >0 O i-1 UO iC C >Q CO (£i © O © CO «D © © O N l> N 



10 
WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 



aJOOOHHWMCO^Oif.OONOOODOOOHHWMM'* 
=+20000000000000000000000000 



aiooOHHTimco^^uocaohhccaoooHNNcom 
^ooooooooooocooooooooooooo 



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aiOOOHHNNM^^iOiCOhNCOOOffiQOHHMlMM 



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CM <M 



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co 



iiOCOHH(M!MMM'*<*L')L':CI>t-(»a)r.OOOHHN 

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mO ~ OHHMCqCOCO^^lClJCOOhNCOQOGlC.OOHH 

'-+2O0OOOOOOOOOO0O0OOOOOOOOOO 



■o CO ^nOCOOOOOO^ 000000000000000 
BJOOOHH(MCNiSM^Tj(iOiOe»hSXCCOIiOOHH 

^0000000000000000000000000 



iJOOOOHHWIMMCO^TlllOlQOOhNXCCCC.OOH 

^poooooooooooooooocoo 00000 

. I-JIT -I'M -»0< --IOJ -HlfN — ili-J H^l ^i(* H(N HOJ ^WN i-l|(N HK. 

T!(M-HiOH^-no^QOHNOOHiOOTHC5«(»(MI>HO 
lOOOOHHOUlc: CO -H -H >^ iO O O O b- t- CO CO CJ O O O 

^00. 00 00 'OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



11 

WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 



•6 | ^ ^ 

^njiOincOtDNOOOOCiOOHH^MCO^OiOOONOOCOJ'. o 
"rHr-lr-lr-lrHrHrHrH rH 

M^OOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH 



^OOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH 



TiOIXNaS^HfflHQOWOlOO^NO^HCClHOOCCOlOO 

T 1 T— I 1 1 1 ( 

^©OOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH 



si CO ^ -* lO lO O CO N QO 00 CS O O O H H 1M CC CO -* "* lO iO C N 
^OOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH 



aoCOCO^^uliOOCNNCCCOr. OOHH(M!Mnr.TH^i.OC 
^OOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH^H 



t5 

<? ic M « « ^ tH iC O CD O t- 1> OO CO CJ C5 O O H H tl N M CO ^ C 

I^OOOOOOOOOO O'O O'O'O i-i iH rH rH rH rH 'rH rH rH rH 



TSoOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOOOOOCOOOO 
»'(N (M co co ^ tH >o n o o n t- oo co cs c. o O h h cq Ol CO CO ^ 

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^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrH^rHrHrHrH 



T3 


TJOHIOHCO^'O^ Ci" CO ~. CO 00 CM CC'dhHhHOOOO 
t— 1 r-i rH rH 

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to 


H"n Him -*m Him -w>i —I'm — i|c-» He* H»i -"» -*>■ Hoi 

t O iC h -(< O CO C5 CM CO h h O CO h LO O H C; CO X «N H O O 


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W^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrH — 



w j 

b i HlOCONOOCSOHClCOHiOCOhOOffiOHIMCO^lOCONX 
q CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO T H< -* -* H< tH -* ^H ^f 

X ! 



12 
WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 



OS -* O 

aiOHHN«co^miflocosoo»c:ooHHNnco^io 

SJHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHNN(NN8I1N«NN 



itOOOHNNMW^iflffl'XtONCOOOSlffiOHHNflM 
^rHrH^HT-(i-lrHi-li-lrHT-(l-lr-lrHrHT-(i-lTHrHS<J<MCCI?q<MG^ 



tNNO^HWHCOMCOOhiMffiTHHOHOOmOflO 

daosoooHNWcocCTfioiSffltossasfflaoOHN 

^)HH-IHr- li-li-lT-lT-lT-lT-li-4i-li-lr-lr-(i-ii-lr-l,-H<N<M<N(M 






3it>(»C0CiOOO'-lWNMCi;-*-fi3 50rt>S00(»OC;O 





■coHNwodcoffl^oiOHOONHcoNr. coo^'hl'jo 


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oiOt-NOOQOaOOOHHSMCCK^TCOCCDONNXr: 


CD 


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•O'iO^DHOHl'-NOOtNCOMOCOffi^O^OlOHOHO 


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ioi(5COONNXOOC1000HH!MWCOMtC^iO":®CON 


CO 


!« r _,^,^|- rHT _l r H r -li_i- | Hr-lTHiH^rHr-lTHrH^THrHrHTHrHrH 




•a'^ocoosooccowocooioocoo^oo^ooo^o 


T3 
CO 


M^i0iacC50t'N»(J0 3!OOOHimMN6:e5^"*W3u'5O 



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■cioH^onocicoHNOCHoo^ftMcoiMt-Hec 

ai(MC100W^^OiOC«Dl>SI>COCOCiJ100HHMN« 
8ft r ^ lH ' T H r - l> HrHr-t'iHr-lTHrHr-'THr-lr-lrHrHTHrHTHrHrHr-lrH 



13 
WAGES TABLE.— Kate per Hour in Pence. 



»OOOHflM'*'*iOCOI>COOOCJOHO(COKT('U30t'-l>CO 
^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



a3OOOi-HWC0C0'*O^t^t^C0CtO'-ir-l<MC0-*i0ic:c£>t^C0 
^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



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nOOOH(MSH^i.-,tfflNCCC^OH.niM»^lOuO«l> 

rHrHrHr-li-lr-li-lr-liHrH 

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CO 



CO 



BOOOHNCqM^iOififflNOOiBfflOOHiNMM^iOtO© 
^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



C5 JO C<l 

BOOOHMNMr|"!jL'5fflNh«C5aOH««M-*'*ino 
^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



CO 



t»OOOr-l MMCC-*TH»0a©t>Q0Q0C5OHHNC0CC'*lOiO 

rHr-l^-irHrHrHT-lrHrH 

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CO 



TJ<tC0C0-<i'OC0-*OX'*O00^OC0^OC0'*O00^O00'* 
OOOH«NCOri<-*iCO©NXCOaOOHiM(NMTC-*i.O 

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c^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



14 
WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 



iofflOHHNM'*iO'<fi(OI>QOO!OOHIMM^'*iO!Cl--QOe! 
4?Ot-It-It-ItHt-It-It-it-It-ItHt-It-It-It-It-It-It-Ii-It-It-It-It-It--It-I 



05 



mCiOOH(M(NC0TH | a | !0!DN0t)CJOOH5qW^THiO«0N00 
i—lr- 1 t— IHHr It— It— IHr IHHr I 

^OOtHr-lr-lT-lT-lT-Hr-lr-lT-lTHr-I^HT-lT-lT-Hr-tr-lr-HT-lT-lrHr-lTH 



05 



kGOCJOOH«COCO^O^ONXOOOHNMM-*iOCDN 
^OOr-lT-lrHr-lT--lr-lT-lT-lrHrMr--lr-lT-lr-lr-lT-Hr-lr-lr-lrHr-HrHr-l 



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iBCOOO©OHH(MCOTHTW5COt>b.COffiOOHNMa5-*iOC 
r- It-It— I t— It— It— It— It— It— It— It— It-4 

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CO 



aiNQOQ0050HHNM^"*iO©50t'»OOaQOH«fflM'*iO 
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CO 



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T— I T— I T—l T— I T— I T-H 

^OOOOOt-Ht-It-It-it-It-It-It-It-It-ItHt-It-Ht-Ht-1 



CO 



00 



(OSNoOfflOOHWfMCO^^iOOOhWXOOOHNM 
t — I i — I i — I i — I i — It — I t— It— It— It— It— I 

^OOOOOOt-It-It-Ht-It-It-It-It-It-It-It-It-It--It-It-It-It-It-It--I 



■COCO-TrJOCO^OOO^OOOTtiOX^OCOilOCO^OOO^O 
»©"Ot-COCOfflOOri(MNMrfliliC«itl>OOXQOOHIN 
'--rtOOOOOOT-lT-lT-lT-lT-HrHrHT-lT-HT-HT-lT-lrHT-lT-I^HT-lT-l-H 



iilO(5fflh(»QOOiOOHH«COM'<jl)OlOOt-(>QOO!fl!OH 

•■rtOOOOOOOT-lT-lT-HT-lT-lTHT-lT-HT-HT-lT-lT-lrHrHT-HT-lT-HT-* 



15 
WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 



tc 3! O H (M CO CO tH iC O N h OO ffi O H (N N C5 tH >0 O O N CO 
rH i— Ir-lrHrHr-lr-lr-lr-lr-lr-lr-l 



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TJQN^OHffiC^HHWCejHOOOiOCOOONiOINO 

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T-lrH r-lr-lr-lr-<r-lr-lrHr-lr-l 

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l— I rH r-l r-l r-l tH ,_| _- 1 rH rH 

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H<N HIM -«im -«im H<M H<M Hm 

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rH r-l rH r-l 

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r-lr-lT-lr-lr-ir-lr-lr-( t- j t-' 

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00 



aCO-fiOmtDNNQOOOOHHNCOil^iOOCO^XOOO 
tH r-l i— I r- Ir-lrHrH-Hr-lT—l 

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^HHHHHHHHHHri(NNIMN(M(MOqiM(M(MNCS(N 



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^HHHHHHHHHHHWHN(M(MN(N(MIMNN«(M 



16 
WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Houk in Pence. 



-docsooooooooooooooooo oo o © o c 


DD 


iOOHNM^COSKSOHWCiJ^iflfflSOOOOHNM 




^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrH^-i^Hr-( 


. 


i— It— IHr IHHHr- 1 


iff 


«iOOOHNCO-*iOOI>COQOH«M'*i!5®l>QOfflOHN 




"-(JOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOtHi-ii-i 


T3 


. rsi^-iKNH^ -*n —i^ -** He* He* -*>* He* He* He* — ie* -ho. 

flOCOHHOO^SCOOONNOOlOiO^i^COCOMNHHC 
i-H tH t-I tH 


( iiOOOHlM»^i.0OSC0C5OHNC0'*i0Si>(X)SCHN 




^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0,0 OOOOOrHrHT-i 




■Saa0HOGJS»N»OH'+KC0(NHOOHO5".Q«l>O 


<* 


aiOOOHMM^iOOhOOCiOHfMCO^KSiOOSQOOOH 
t— It— 1 t—I i— It— It— It— It— It— Ii— IH 




■^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCt-It-i 




■OiOQOHOSQOI>«DiOT(ICONHOHOOcON©iaTH:OWH 


"V 


i»OOOnNW^ifl«ShOOOJOHHNCO-ti8COSOOJ > .OH 




^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrH 


-d 


. — l|"*l mi-Wr-lN-llrtl rOl""*-— 1|0»— IJTJH m|Tfrt|<N~l|'<J! :c|-<t—i|e*-<|Ti< ww- >ic*-<i'v MM— 1<>«-<|TJ< 


o 


aiOOOHNC0^i0OI>00G005OH(MC0'i'i0«0Nt>00KO 


«+JOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOt-i 


T3 


. -ii^eolTjH'N -re* He* He* —kx Hoi He* He* -*n -«i Him Hei 


o 


tiiOOOHNO:^iO«ONNaOC5 0HNCOrH-+iO©l>Q033C 


'^©OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC COt-^ 


T3 


Hd-iHHiNfflW t-i|t)— iiMrjcf -w—!C4Miv -"Ith-iunmi^ -i|THc*MiTr ^p* i&sart 

T3if. OOOO'OiCMHHOOOiS^WHHOJCOCOTHNHHOSt- 

T— 1 T— 1 T— 1 T— 1 7—1 


6 


a;OOOHNC0->*iCiO«0N(»C5OHHiNC0'*i.0©l>l>0CC. 
7— It— It— It— It— IHr It— It— It-It— It— 1 




"4JOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 




i SiONoa)0'*NOooos>*«ooocisi'*«oo»®^N 


"0 

o 


ioOOOHNKili9if.OhCOOOOHN«T)iiOiO«:NCO© 




=+iooooooooooooooooooooooooo 


(A 

(_ 

3 

o 

I 


HwwItrH (NW^iOONQOOOHINMioOWt-OOfflOHlMM 

rlHHHHHHHHHIMIMJtN 



17 
WAGES TABLE.— Kate per Hour in Pence. 



-oooooooocooooooooooooooooo 

^HHHHHHr-HHHHHHHHH«vl<M(M(M«(N(MIMN 



CCI'»-i|(M-<[tC MIT-i|*M-hW «'- -'I'M-'I-^ ei\f- -i|<2M— f|-<S" M|^»-i|OI-l|V CCI-*-<|(N-'|Tt< 

■COiOiSiClO^Tlc^^cOMWCONWJKMHHHHOOOO 

iJM^COlXlOQOHJlM^i-OCOhOOCOHWCO^iOON 
i— It- It— I r-H tH tH i— I r- Irlr I 

!(lHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH(MN(MCqN(M(MN 



Hoi H<n -h|<n — "n H« H»i -*N Him H'N Him -iiin Hoi 

■OOHHOOOQOOCO^NOOiOlOTfTfMCJWNHHOO 

dCCC0-*i0Ol>CCSOH(MC0^aC0N00OOn(MC0^l0O 



•-i|'tfHC'tfOI"q 1 -il^H'MMI'* Hf - «N«|tj< HtHWMI* -ilt-HlfM.-tJlTT -w-UOjCCItT 

fl ■; iO i< CO CO W H O C H O O T. CC h S O iO i< O? CO IM H O O 

»!N00^U5C0Ni»QOOHWC0^mOi>00COH(MC0TH>O 
T-lr-(r-lr-li— li-lT-Hr-liHrHi-H 



■CCHOClQOhCOiiOTHCONWOHOQCONOiO^COINHO 
««<MOJ-*i:!DI>a)CJOH!MMM-?)iiOCfiM»fflOHlMM^ 



cci-^-— i|<m-i|-^ n'THiM-i|'>i> m-rH'M-tl'* WTn(M-i w Mm-Hl'M-'!-* :<:|T7"-i|or-'|'<}< 
"CCO^ COlM H r- 1 O ?. CO O iQ ■* CO r- 1 O i— lOQOhfflQCONr l O 

'/!H(NC0^lOlO?0l>COOOHINC0^-+lff«9NCOu5OHC-1C0 

^rHi^l^i^T^T^rHrHrHrHrHTH^THi^THi^i-HT-!r-(rH<?qOv|<NC<I 



rHlr^ H<N -i|oj -h|im Hw Him Hw -iiim H<n -ikn him -<|(N 

■oo-<ni>®^WHOCo;No^coH0003Nffl^coHO 

xHHWCO^iOOSCOOOSVOHINOOTTHOlOOhCOCOHW 
^^^^j-H^Hj-Ht—lr-tr-HT-HT-lT-lT-lT— It— ii— It-Ht- 1 r- It— IHr I <N <M (N 



-i|-t-H|'Mr:|T -ii^-hIimnw -iw-iiowsw •—|-^— iCMrol-q- '-iiv-iknmI-* -i|tt-<|imww 

to-foiCHJ-a-io^woo?. t>iocooioocot-LocoHO 

!60HMCOCOTf(iOOh»©QOH(MCO^iOiOONCOC30H 
t— It—It-It-Ht— It— It—It— It— It— It—I 

"4r!rHT-lT-lT-lT-li-irHT-lT-lT^T-lT-lT-iT^T-lT-lTHrHT-lT-lT-lrHTHC^CM 



tCOC0!0^iMOOai(0^CNOO(»OTl<CNOOC0O'*J)O 
iiiOOHW00-*i.0i0Ol>C0CBOOH«C0^iniOONiX!C5O 
^t-It-It-^t-Ii-ItHt-It-It-It-It-It-Ht-It^t-It-It-It-It-It-It-It^t-It-IC^ 



18 
WAGES TABLE.— Kate tkr Hour in Pence. 





•^'oooooooooooocooooooooooo 


05 


a'QOHIMM^OOSOOOSOHPieO^lOO^XOOHN 




^<M(NNN(NNN«iMW(NncOCOWWMMeOCOeOWXM 




. mi^-h|<nH'* s3w-iflN-<N" rni-j -icm-iI-ji m^Hm^i^ «!■*■- «n-«|*- row- nat-n-^ 
T3HHHHOOOOC500300D»CCXhl>l>h«e'Jffl 


g 


BiNC0C5OHNM-*)0t0N00OOHN0:-*i0C0h00G5O 

I— I I— 1 1— It— I 1— 1 1— l i— i i— ( T— 1 1— 1 I— 1 




=ftNiN<MN(M(NNiNNN«e(|«mMMMWWWMCi:WW 


T3 


. -IIOI Hc^ ~«N '-"KN H<M H*) He« HM Hoi H«N H<N — «|CH 

'SHHOOOy.OOQONl'-WSiOiO^TfiMMiMSlHHOO 


^ 


«?CI>00ffiOH(MW-*iCOI>(X)05OH(MWTHi0at>aji 




^<NMC^cqc^cq<?ci<N<N<?qc<i<?q<?q<NeoeoeQcocoeQcoeoeoco 




. --<N<-H|e*<aw '■i'l'-.io.coiTr -wHoam^ h^hnw H^Hwsi'* -'ItHincoi-* 
TJH005ffl«Ntt<tH5i'COCQCqHOOHOO;05XN©ti 




KlflCCI>00C)OH(MM-4(>IONQ0SOOHNC.:^m"N 




tftyiNNNIMiMNniMNlNINOgNWCOMWeJMMMmW 




1 8HO010)t»Oifti(W(NHOHO».Q0l>ai3^M<NHO 


2_ 


ts^ifiCNOOSOHIMCO^iOmONCOCSCHMWTtliaO 




!(!(N(N!MNNiN(N<NN(NM<N(MNM»l(NWWMCOCOWM 




•BOOQ0Nu'5^mNOHOffl^Oi0"*(NHOHft0t)l>O 


o 


!BCO-*>OCOt-(»0!OHH(M«Tfl>aCt>COOOOH«o:T)i 


5()(NNM!NN(M(N(N(N(MiNN(M(N(MM(M(NeOMe:cO«M 


T3 


. ~v.n. ~*|OJ -iOi -IICI -HO* HOI -1|04 -H|(N -H<M -l)!M -*N ~->10. 

'BOONCOTJ..fflHOOOI>®'*MHOOfflSffl^COHO 


o 


isiMMtH>SO1>00OQOHN«^i0©OS00SOHNC0 


^(MNCTNOiKMNffKNNNlMNtNNNlNMNNCOMWM 


t5 


. -Hl^-WNMI-* -i|-*-h|(NM|-* H-fr-'lfN^T -i|tJ— 1IXMH- -i|T~<l<NM|-<r -^HiNMN 1 

■3O00OiOC0r-iHO<»C0^e0r-iHC5(»tC^(MHHQt-C 


<<* 

g 


BiH(MM^>3«OtOt»Qt)QOH}qHMT(HO?ONMQOClOH 


q2<?qc-iri5<icq<^cq<>iC3<^<^<^<^<^<?q<^s^cq<^<N<^<^o3co 




'do«)!O^NOO»fflT)lNOOOO«^SOOM»T)lNO 


S 


wOHWCO^lOiOffit-XQOOHNCO^lOlOWNCCOiO 




^^(M!MNCT«iMNNNNN«(M(NiM««iM«W(M(N0'3 


S2 

3 
O 
I 


CiOHMM-*iO!Dl>(OfflOHlM«TFiO»SMaOHP| 



19 



SIZES OF PAPERS. 



Drawing Papkrs. 



Inches. 



Emperor 
Antiquarian . . . 
Double Elephant 
Atlas ... 
Colombier 
Imperial 
Elephant 
Super Royal ... 

Royal 

Medium 
Demy ... 
Foolscap 



Imperial 
Royal ... 
Medium 
Double Foolscap 



Loan Papers. 



Account Book and Writing Papers. 



Atlas ... 

Imperial 

Super Royal 

Royal ... 

Medium 

Demy ... 

Foolscap (hand made) 

,, (machine made) 
Double Foolscap 
Sheet and half Foolscap 
Sheet and third Foolscap 
Extra Large Post 
Large Post . 
Copy ... 
Post ... 
Pinched Post 
Pott ... 

Sheet and half Pott 
Bank of England Note 



. 72 


X 48 


- 53 


X 31 


. 40 


X 27 


. 34 


X 26 


. 341 


X 24 


. -30 


X 22 


. 28 


X 23 


• m 


X 191 


. 24 


X 19 


. 22 


X 171 


. 20 


X 15£ 


1«* 


X 13| 


• 29£ 


X 211 


■ 23i 


X 18| 


. 21 


X 17 


. 25| 


X 161 


RS. 

. 331 


X 26£ 


. 30 


X 22 


27 


X 194 


. 24 


X 194 


22 


X I7£ 


. 20 


X 15| 


• 16f 


X 131 


• m 


X 134 
X 16f 
X 131 


■ 261 


■ -H 


. 22" 


X 131 


. 22^ 


X 17§ 


. 2L 


X 16} 


. 204 


X 16 


. 1!) 


X 154 


. 181 


X 14-f 


. 15 


X 121 


. 221 


X 12$ 
X 51 


•■ H 



Medium 

Royal 

Double Foolscap 
Medium Copying 
Royal CopyiDg 



20 
Copyings, &c 



Printing Papers. 



Double Royal 

,, Medium 

,, Demy 

Copy 

, , Large Post 

,, Crown 

,, Post 

., Foolscap 

,, Pott 

Sheet and half Demy, square 
,, ,, ,, usual 

„ ,, PoM; 

Elephant 
Imperial 
Super Royal ... 

Royal 

Pasting Royal 
Medium 
Demy ... 



Plate Papers. 



Antiquarian ... 
Double Imperial 
„ Elephant 
Atlas ... 
Colombier 
Imperial 
Super Royal ... 

Royal 

Medium 

Demy 

Foolscap 

Double Elephant 
Atlas ... 
Imperial 
Royal ... 
Demy 



Chart Papers. 



Inches. 


22^ 


X 171 


23£ 


X 19* 


27 


X 17 


l&L 


X 22| 


24| 


X 20f 


40 


X 25 


37 


X 23^ 


35± 


X 22* 


38 


X 20 


33 


X 21 


30 


X 20 


311 


X 19* 


27 


X 17 


25 


X 15k 


26^ 


X 22l 


33f 


X 172 

x 19f 


23^ 


30 


X 23 


30 


X 22 


28 


X 20 


25 


X 20 


24 


X 191 


231 


X 18 


23~ 


X 18 


22^ 


X 17f 


22i 


x 17£ 


53 


X 31 


44 


X 30 


40 


X 27 


34 


X 27 


35 


X 24 


30 


X 22 


28 


X 20 


25 


X 20 


231 


X 181 
X 17f 


22* 


17" 


X 13| 


40± 


X 27 


34 


X 26 


30 


X 22 



25 x 20 

221 x i7| 



21 



Cartridge Papers. 



Inches. 



Elephant 
Imperial 
Cartridge size.. 

Royal 

Demy ... 

Copy 

Double Demy 
„ Crown 
Continuous 



.. 28 


X 


23 


.. 30 


X 


22 


.. 26 


X 


21 


.. 25 


X 


20 


.. 221 


X 


17* 


.. 20" 


X 


16* 


.. -m 2 


X 


22^ 


.. 30 


X 


20 


54 inches wide 



Sugar and Grocers' Papers. 



Double Lump 

Titlers 

Double Hambro 
Extra Large Lump 
Single Lump ... 
Large Single ... 
Small „ 
Elephant 
Purple. No. 4 ... 

„ No. 3... 
Powder Loaf ... 
Single Hambro 
Large Double Loaf 
Small „ „ 

Royal Hand ... 
Double, 2 lbs.... 

„ 6 „ ... 

„ Small Hand 
Lumber Hand 
Middle Hand ... 



30 

36 

34 

29 

27 

29 

28 

26 

26 

24 

23 

21 

25 

24 

2Si x 19 

31" x 21 

23 x 18 

£2 X 16 



Brown Papers. 



Casing... 



Doable Imperial 
„ Bag Cap 
„ 4 lbs. ... 

Large Imperial 

Imperial 

Havon Cap ... 

Bag Cap 

Kent Cap 



48 
4^ 
46 
45 
40 
31 
32 
29 
26 
24 

99 



22 



Brown Papers (Wrappers). 



Inches. 



Plutarch 






. 36 X 26 


Saddle Back 




. 45 x 36 


Nicanee 




. 45 X 28 


Quad Royal ... 




. 50 x 40 


Double Nicanee 




. 56 x 45 


Elephant 




. 34 x 27 


Small Hands. 




Double Crown Small Hand 




. 30 x 20 


Double Small Hand... 




. 29 x 20 


55 55 !i 




. 23 x 17 


. . , , , , . . . 




. 28 x 18 


• ) 5 > 5 5 




. 21 x 13 


Single Small Hand ... 




. 20 x 15 


Bloti 


ing Papers. 




Royal or Treasury ... 




. 24 x 19 


Demy ... 




. 22£ x 17| 


Post 




. 19 x 154 


Double Foolscap 




. -26J X 16J 


MlSCKLLA 


neods Papers. 




Drying Royal 




. 24 x 191 


Tissue, Double Crown 




. 30 x 20 


„ Demy 




. 22£ x 17f 


Middles 






. 32 x 22 
. 30 x 20 


,, ... 






. 24 x 19 


55 






. 224 x 17* 


Filtering Papers 






. 24 x 19 


Scribbling Demy 






. 224 x 17* 


Copying, Medium 






. 22| x 18} 


„ Double Foolscap 




. 27 x 17 


Cardboards a 


nd Bristol Board 


s. 




Cardboards. I 


Jristol Boards 


Foolscap 


17 X 13$ . 
224 x 17* • 


. 15i X 124 


Demy ... 


. 184 x 144 

. 21 x 16* 


Medium 


— 


Royal 


25 x 20 . 


. 224 x 18' 
. 251 x 18 


Super Royal ... 


27| X 20i . 


Imperial 


30 x 224 . 


. 28| X 21 


Double Crown 


30 x 20 . 


— 


„ Foolscap 




27 x 17 . 


— 



Note. — These sizes vary according to the maker. 



23 



Gla 


Zee 


Pressing B 


oards. 




luchei?. 


Large size, for dyers 










36 x 24 


Lon<j ... 










32 x 19 


Imperial 










31 x 23 


Double Crown 










30 .| x 20* 


Super Royal ... 










29 X 2Li 


Double Foolscap 










29 x 18 


Koyal, Extra ... 










25| X 20i 


„ "Writing 










21 x 19 


Demy „ 










22 x 18 


Writing Parchments. 






35 X 30 30 X 


2G 


28 x 23 


24 x 


20 


24 x 18 


32 x 28 30 X 


25 


27 X 23 


27 x 


19 


21 x 16 


31 x 26 29 X 


26 


26 x 2'Z 


24 X 


19 


20 x 16 


30 x 27 28 X 


24 


25 x 21 
Portfolios. 


26 x 


18 


20 X 15 


Antiquarian ... 










53 x 33 


Double Elephant 










41 x 27 


Colombier 










36 x 25 


Large Atlas ... 










35 x 27 


Imperial 










31 x 22k 


Super Royal . . . 










28 x 20 


Royal 










25 x 20 


Medium 










23 x 18£ 


Demy 










23 x 18 


Crown 










19 x 15 


Foolscap 










18 x 14 


Half Imperial 










22\ x 15£ 


„ Super Royal 










20 x 14£ 


„ Royal ... 










20 X 13 


„ Medium . . . 










18^ x 12 


„ Demy ... 










18 x 12 


,, Crown ... 










15 x 91 


„ Foolscap 










14 x 9" 


Quarto Imperial 










16$ x llf 


„ Super Royal 










14 x 101 


„ Royal... 










121 x xo-i 


„ Medium 










11* X 9 




Binding Vellums. 






Imperial 










36 x 24 


Super Royal ... 










33 x 22 


Royal 










30 x 22 


Medium 










28 x 20 


Long Demy ... 










22 x 21 


Broad Demy ... 










14 x 171 



24 



Binding Vk 


LLTJMS (cont.) 


Inches. 


Long Foolscap 




.. 28i x 17$ 


Broad „ 




.. 21 x 15 


Boy al 4 to 




.. 21 x 13$ 


Medium 4to ... 




.. 21 x 12$ 


Sheet and half and thirds ... 




.. 15 x 14$ 


Long Demy 4to 




.. 17 x 13$ 


Broad ,, „ 




.. J9 x Hi 


Long Foolscap 4 to ... 




.. 14 x 11$ 


Broad ,, ,, 




.. 1«$ X 9$ 


Medium 8vo tucks 




.. 17$ X !>| 


Demy „ „ 




.. 16$ x *$ 


Foolscap „ „ 




.. 15$ X 1 i 


Millboards. 


Marks. 


Pott 


17± x 14£ 


P. 


Foolscap 


18$ X 144 


F.C. 


Crown... 


20 x 16$ 


C. 


Small Half Royal 


20^ x IB 


. . S.H.R. 


Large „ „ 


21 x 14 


... L.H.R. 


Short 


21 x 17 


S. 


Half Imperial 


23$ x 16$ 


H.I. 


Small Half Imperial 


22* X 15 


S.H.I. 


Middle or Small Demy 


22$ x 18$ 


M. 


Large Middle or Large Demy 


23f X 18$ 


L.M. 


Large or Medium ... 


24: x 19 


L. 


Small Whole Royal... 


25^ x 19$ 


S.R, 


I*rge » '» 


26f x 20| 


L.R, 


Extra Royal ... 


28$ x 21$ 


Ex. R 


Whole Imperial 


32 x 22$ 


I. 


Long Thin 


30 x 21 


L.T. 


Atlas ... 


30 X 2G 


A. 


Extra Atlas ... 


32^ x 26$ 


... Ex. A 


Long Royal ... 


34 x 21 


L.R. 


Colombier 


36 x 24 


COL. 


Portfolio 


34 X 27 


P.K. 


Great Eagle or Double Elephant 4') x 28 


G.E. 


Emperor 


44 x 30 


E. 


Double Royal 


46 x 21 


D.R 


Long Colombier 


49 x 24 


L.C. 


Long Double Elephant 


50 x 27$ 


L.D.E. 


Antiquarian ... 


54 x 30 


ANT. 


Extra Antiquarian ... 


54 x 34 


... Ex. ANT. 


Stra.wboa.kds. 


Usual Sizes. 




19 x 24 


22 x 32 




20 x 30 


25 X 30 




Note. — From 3 ozs. 


to 5 lbs in weight 



25 

GERMAN CLASSIFICATION AND SIZES OF PAPERS. 

Briefpapiere (Letter Papers). 
Gross Median ... ... ... ... ... 46 x 59 cm. 

Klein „ 44 x 56 „ 

Register 42 x 53 „ 

Schreibpaptere (Writing Papers). 
Median ... ... ... ... ... ... 45 x 58 cm. 

Klein Median 44 x 56 „ 

Register 42 x 53 „ 

Klein Register 41 x 51 „ 

Gross Propatri.i ... 37 X 45 „ 

Propatria 34 x 43 „ 

Schulformat 3-t x 42 „ 

Buch and Zeichenpapiere (Book Papers). 

Atlas 83 x 118 cm. 

Gross Adler 70 x 107 „ 

Adler 62 x 90 ., 

Imperial 57 x 80 „ 

Super Regal 54 x 70 „ 

Regal 49 x 64 „' 

Klein Regal ... 47 x 60 „ 

Median ... 45 x 58 „ 

Gross Propatria ... ,.. ... ... 37 X 45 „ 

Kupferdruckpapiere (Copperplate Papers). 
Colombier ... ... ... ... ... 60 x 90 cm. 

Jesus 52 x 73 „ 

Regal 49 x H4 „ 

Median 45 x 58 „ 

Notendruckpapiere and Notenschreibpapiere. 

Super Regal 

Klein „ 

Druckpapiere (Printing Papers). 
Gross Lexikon... 
Lexikon 
Hochquart 
Quart ... 
Gross Duodez ... 
Gross Octav und Sedez 
Octav und Klein Duodez 
Klein Quart 
Klein Octav 

Leipsiger 

Seidenpapiere (Tissue Papers). 
Alt Super Regal 
Copir Alt Regal 
Cigaretten Alt Gr. Median ... 
Goldschlag Alt Kl. Regal 



54 x 


70 


cm, 


47 X 


60 


» 


)• 
54 x 


70 


cm. 


49 x 


64 


j? 


47 x 


65 


J5 


47 x 


60 


» 


47 x 


58 




45 x 


58 


}) 


43 x 


52 




42 x 


52 




41 x 


51 


?J 


37 x 


49 


» 


50 x 


76 


cm. 


50 x 


60 


J5 


48 x 


58 




40 X 


50 


„ 



26 

Farbige Umschlagpapiere (Coloured Wrapping Papers). 

Regal 49 x 64 cm. 

Gro=s Median ... ... ... 46 x 59 „ 

Affichenpapiere (Thin roster Paper). 

Farbige 65 x 94 cm. 

Weisse ... ... ... ... 45 x 73 „ 

Skips 42 x 60 „ 

Papers to be used for Certificates, Documents, &c. , are as 
follows : — 

37 x 46 cm. Weight 19 Kilos. p.l ,000 Sheets. 
41 x51 „ 



Bienenkerb ., 
Klein Median 
Gross „ 
Roj'al ... 
Superroval . , 

Imperial 

Colombier 



45 x58 
49^x61 
50 x70 
55 x76 
63.^ x 88 



3o 
42 

50 
64 
90 
120 



Double Elephant 67 x 103 

Extra Formate (Extra Sizes). 
Kupferdruck Colombier 

„ Jesus 

Druckpapiere Hochquart 

„ Gross Duodez 

„ Octav und Duodez 

„ Leipsiger 

Afficheii Gross ... 
„ Klein ... 
Blau, Rosa, Halbweiss, and Grau Papier 
1 Pfund Beutil Doppeldiiten 
Extra Regal 
^ Pfund Beutel 
Diiten 
Roth Losch 



Carton 



60 x 
52 x 
47 x 
47 X 
43 x 
37 x 
65 x 
45 x 
50 x 



90 cm. 

73 „ 

65 „ 

58 „ 
52 „ 
49 ,. 
94 ,. 
73 ., 
76 ,, 
75 „ 

66 „ 
63 „ 
45 „ 
88 „ 
63 „ 
60 „ 

59 „ 

60 „ 
58 ,, 



No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 



Neue Papiernormalformate (New Normal Sizes). 
No. 



. 34 x 43 cm. 


7 


. 36 x 45 „ 


X 


. 38 x 48 „ 


9 


. 40 x 50 „ 


10 


. 42 x 53 „ 


11 


. 33 x 42 „ 


12 



44 x 
46 X 

48 x 
50 x 



56 cm. 

59 „ 

64 „ 

65 „ 



54 x 68 
57 X 78 



27 









TABLE 








Showing the Equivalent Weights per ream of 






PRINTING PAPERS. 






Demy 


D.F 


'cap 


Royal 


S. Koyal 


Dbl. 


Cr. 


Imperial D.De my 


17£x22£ 


17 > 


27 


20 X 25 


20 X 28 


20 > 


,30 


22 > 


30 


221 x 35 


lbs. 


lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. 


11 


12 


13 


14 4 


15 10 


16 


12 


18 


7 


22 


12 


14 





15 8 


17 1 


18 


4 20 


1 


24 


13- 


15 


2 


16 13 


18 8 


19 


12 21 


12 


26 


14 


16 


5 


18 2 


19 14 


21 


5 


23 


7 


28 


15 


17 


7 


19 7 


21 5 


22 


13 


25 


2 


30 


16 


18 


10 


20 11 


22 12 


24 


5 


26 


13 


32 


17 


19 


13 


22 


24 3 


25 


13 


28 


7 


34 


18 


20 


15 


23 5 


25 10 


27 


6 


30 


2 


36 


19 


22 


2 


24 10 


27 1 


28 


15 


31 


13 


38 


20 


23 


5 


25 14 


28 7 


30 


7 


33 


8 


40 


21 


24 


7 


27 3 


29 14 


31 


15 


35 


2 


42 


22 


25 


10 


28 7 


31 5 


33 


8 


36 


13 


44 


23 


26 


13 


29 12 


32 12 


35 


1 


38 


8 


46 


24 


27 


15 


31 1 


34 3 


36 


9 40 


3 


48 


25 


29 


2 


32 6 


35 8 


38 


1 41 


13 


50 


26 


30 


5 


33 10 


36 15 


39 


9 1 43 


8 


52 


27 


31 


7 


34 15 


38 6 


41 


2 1 45 


3 


54 


28 


32 


10 


36 4 


39 13 


42 


10 


46 


14 


56 


29 


33 


13 


37 8 


41 4 


44 


2 


48 


8 


58 


30 


34 


15 


38 13 


42 10 


45 


11 


50 


3 


60 


31 


36 


2 


40 2 


44 1 


47 


3 


51 


14 


62 


32 


37 


4 


41 7 


45 8 


48 


11 


53 


9 


64 


33 


38 


7 


42 11 


46 15 


50 


4 


55 


4 


66 


34 


39 


10 


44 


48 6 


51 


12 


56 


15 


68 


35 


40 


12 


45 5 


49 12 


53 


5 


58 


10 


70 


36 


41 


15 


46 9 


51 2 


54 


13 


60 


5 


72 


37 


43 


1 


47 14 


52 9 


56 


5 61 


15 


74 


38 


44 


4 


49 3 


54 


57 


14 63 


10 


76 


39 


45 


7 


50 8 


55 7 


59 


6 65 


5 


78 


40 


46 


9 


51 12 


56 14 


60 


14 67 





80 



28 



TABLE 

Showing the Equivalent Weights per Ream of 
WRITING PAPERS. 



L. Post 


Pott 


E'cap 


P. Post 


Post 


Demy 


Med'ir 


Royal 


m x 21 


12^X15 


I3jxl6-J- 


\Uxl8h 


15i x 19 


15* X 20 


17^x22 


19x24 


lbs. 


lbs. oz. 


Ibs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


11 


5 15 


6 15 


8 8 


9 3 


9 13 


12 8 


14 7 


12 


6 7 


7 9 


9 4 


10 


10 11 


13 10 


15 12 


13 


7 


8 3 


10 1 


10 14 


11 10 


14 12 


17 2 


14 


7 9 


8 13 


10 13 


11 11 


12 8 


15 14 


IS 7 


15 


8 1 


9 7 


11 9 


12 9 


13 6 


17 


19 12 


16 


8 10 


10 1 


12 6 


13 


14 5 


18 3 


21 1 


17 


9 3 


10 11 


13 2 


14 4 


15 3 


19 5 


22 


18 


9 11 


11 5 


13 15 


15 1 


16 1 


20 7 


23 11 


19 


10 4 


11 15 


14 11 


15 15 


17 


21 9 


25 


20 


10 13 


12 9 


15 7 


16 12 


17 14 


22 11 


26 5 


21 


11 7 


13 3 


16 4 


17 9 


18 12 


23 13 


27 10 


22 


11 14 


13 13 


17 


18 6 


19 10 


24 15 


28 15 


23 


12 7 


14 7 


17 13 


19 4 


20 9 


26 2 


30 4 


24 


13 


15 2 


18 9 


20 1 


21 7 


27 4 


31 9 


25 


13 8 


15 12 


19 5 


20 15 


22 5 


28 6 


32 14 


26 


14 1 


16 6 


20 2 


21 12 


23 4 


29 8 


34 3 


27 


14 9 


17 


20 14 


22 10 


24 2 


30 11 


35 8 


28 


15 2 


17 10 


21 10 


23 7 


25 


31 13 


36 14 


29 


15 11 


18 4 


22 7 


24 4 


25 15 


32 15 


38 3 


30 


16 3 


18 11 


23 3 


25 1 


26 13 


34 1 


39 8 


31 


16 12 


19 8 


24 


25 15 


27 11 


35 3 


40 13 


32 


17 5 


20 3 


24 12 


26 12 


28 10 


36 « 


42 2 


33 


17 13 


20 13 


25 8 


27 10 


29 8 


37 8 


43 7 


34 


18 6 


21 7 


26 5 


28 7 


30 6 


38 10 


44 12 


35 


18 15 


22 1 


27 1 


29 4 


31 5 


39 12 


46 1 


36 


19 7 


22 11 


27 14 


30 1 


32 3 


40 14 


47 6 


37 


20 


23 5 


28 10 


30 15 


33 1 


42 


48 11 


38 


20 8 


23 15 


29 6 


31 13 


34 1 


43 2 


50 


39 


21 1 


24 9 


30 3 


32 10 


34 14 


44 5 


51 5 


40 


21 10 


25 4 


30 15 


33 7 


35 12 


45 7 


52 10 1 



29 



TABLE 


• 
Showing Equivalent Sizes and Weights of 

- 


WRAPPING PAPERS. 


Size. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


ll.s. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


>b. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


36x45 


30 


35 
10-3 


40 
11-8 


45 
13-3 


50 
14-8 


55 
16-2 


60 
17-7 


65 
19-2 


70 
20-7 


75 
22*2 


80 


20x24 


8-8 


23-6 


20x25 


9-2 


10-8 


12-3 


13-8 


15-4 


16-9 


18-5 


20 


21-6 


23-1 


24-6 


21x26 


10-1 


11-8 


13-4 


15-1 


16-8 


18-5 


20-2 


21-8 


23-5 


25-2 


26-9 


20x30 


11-1 


12-9 


14-8 


16-7 


18-5 


20-3 


22-2 


24 


25-8 


27-6 


29 4 1 


21x31 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


2Q 


28 


30 


32 


20x28 


10-3 


12 


13-8 


15*5 


17-2 


18-9 


20-7 


22*4 


24-1 


25-9 


27-6 


224X2'.' 


12 


14 


16-1 


18-1 


201 


22-1 


24-1 


26-1 


28-1 


30-2 


32-2 


22 x 32 


13 


15-1 


17-3 


19-5 


21-6 


23-8 


26 


28-1 


30-3 


32-5 


34-6 


21x34 


13-2 


154 


17-6 


19-8 


22 


24-2 


26-4 


28-6 


30-8 


33 


35-2 


22 x 35 


14-2 


16-6 


19 


21-3 


23-7 


26 


28-3 


30-8 


33-2 


35-6 


38 


23x34 


14-4 


16-8 


19-2 


21-6 


24-1 


26-5 


28-9 


31-3 


33-7 


36-1 


38-5 


24x30 


13-3 


15-5 


17-7 


20 


22 '2 


24-4 


26-6 


28-9 


31-1 


33-3 


35-5 


24x32 


14-2 


16-5 


18-9 


21-2 


23-6 


26 


28-3 


30-7 


33-1 


35-5 


37-9 


24x36 


15-9 


18-5 


21-2 


23-9 


26-6 


29-2 


32 


34-6 


37-3 


40 


42-6 


24x40 


17-7 


20-7 


23-7 


26-6 


29-6 


32-6 


35-5 


38-5 


41-5 


44-4 


47-4 


26x36 


17-3 


20-2 


23-1 


26 


28-8 


31-7 


34-6 


37-5 


40-4 


43-3 


46-2 


27x34 


17 


19-8 


22-6 


25-4 


28-3 


31-1 


34 


36-8 


39-6 


42-5 


45-3 


28x45 


23-3 


27-2 


31 -1 


35 


38-8 


42-7 


46-7 


50-5 


54-5 


58 


62 


29x44 


23-6 


27-5 


31-5 


35-4 


39-3 


48 -3 


47-2 


51-1 


55*1 


59 


63 


29x45 


24-1 


28-1 


32-2 


36-2 


40-2 


44-3 


48-3 


52-3 


56-3 


60-4 


644 


30 X 38 


21 


24-5 


28-1 


31-6 


35-1 


38-7 


42-2 


45-7 


49-2 


52-7 


56-3 


30 x 46 


25*5 


29-7 


34 


38-2 


42-5 


46-7 


51 


55-2 


59-5 


63-7 


68 


31x46 


26-4 


30-8 


35-2 


39-6 


44 


48-4 


52-8 


57-2 


61-6 


66 


70-4 


34x36 


22 -li 


26-4 


30-2 


34 


37-7 


41-5 


'5-3 


49-1 


52-9 


56-7 


60-4 


36x36 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


64 


36x46 


30-6 


35-7 


40-8 


46 


51-1 


56-2 


HI -3 


66-4 


71-5 


76-6 


81-7 


36x48 


32 


37-3 


42-6 


47-9 


53-3 


58-6 


(J4 


69-3 


74-6 


80 


85-3 


38x48 


33-8 


39-3 


45 


50-6 


56-3 


619 


67-5 


73-1 


78-8 


84-4 


90 


40x48 


35-5 


41-4 


47-4 


53-3 


59-3 


65-2 


71-1 


77 


83 


88-9 


94-8 


40x50 


36-8 


43-2 


49-3 


55-4 


61-6 


67-7 


74 


80 


86-2 


92-3 


98-4 


45x56 


46-6 


54-4 


62-2 


70 


77-7 


85-5 


93-3 


101 


109 


116 


124 



30 



TABLE 


Showing Equivalent Sizes and Weighls of 


WRAPPING PAPERS-continued. 


Size. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lb.=. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. lbs. |lbs. 


lbs. 


36x45 


85 


90 


95 


100 


105 


110 


115 


120 


125 


130 135 


140 


20x24 


25-1 


26-6 


28-1 


29-6 


31-1 


32-5 


34 


35*5 


37 


38-540 


41-4 


20x25 


26-2 


27-7 


29-3 


30-8 


32-3 


33-9 


35-4 


37 


38-5 


40 41-6 


43-2 


21x20 


28-5 


30-2 


32 


33-6 


35-3 


37 


38-7 


40-4 


42 


43-6 45-3 


47-1 


20x30 


31-3 


33-3 


35-2 


37 


38-8 


40-7 


42-5 


44-3 


46-2 


48 


49-8 


51-6 


21x31 


34 


36 


38 


40 


42 


44 


46 


48 


50 


52 


54 


56 


20x28 


29-3 


31 


32-7 


34-5 


36-1 


37-8 


39-5 


41-4 


431 


44-8 46-5 


48-2 


22|X29 


34-2 


36-2 


38-2 


40-2 


42-2 


44-3 


46-3 


48-3 


50 


52 54 


56-5 


22x32 


36-8 


39 


41-2 


434 


45-5 


47-6 


19-8 


52 


54-1 


56-258-4 


60-6 


21x34 


37-4 


39-6 


41-8 


44 


46-2 


48-4 


50-6 


52-8 


55 


57-2 59-4 


61-6 


22x35 


40-3 


42-7 


4 .VI 


47-6 


49-8 


52-2 


54-6 


57 


59-3 


61-764-1 


66-4 


23x34 


40-9 


43-3 


4.V7 


48-2 


50-6 


53 


55-4 


57-8 


60-2 


62-6 65 


67-4 


24x30 


37-7 


39-9 


42-2 


44-4 


46-6 


48-8 


51-1 


53-3 


55 - 5 


'^7-760 


62-2 


24x32 


40-2 


42-6 


45 


47-4 


49-7 


52-1 


54 "5 


56-9 


59-2 


61-664 


66-3 


24 x 36 


45-3 


48 


50-6 


53-3 


56 


58-6 


61-3 


64 


66-6 


69-3 


72 


74-6 


24x40 


50 


53 


56 


59 


62 


65 


68 


71 


74 


77 


80 


83 


26x36 


49-1 


52 


54-8 


57-7 


60-6 


63-5 


66-4 


69/3 


72-2 


75-1 


77-9 


80-8 


27x34 


48-1 


51 


53-8 


56-6 


59-5 


62-3 


65-6 


68 


70-8 


73-6 76-5 


79-3 


28x45 


66 


70 


73-5 


77-5 


81-5 


8 5 - 5 


89-5 


93 


97 


101 


105 


109 


29x44 


66-9 


70-8 


74-8 


78-7 


82-6 


86-6 


90-5 


94-5 


98-4 


102 


106 


110 


29x45 


68-4 


72-5 


76-5 


80-5 


84-5 


88-6 


92-6 


96-7 


100 


104 


108 


113 


30x38 


59-8 


63-3 


66-8 


70-3 


73-8 


77-3 


80-9 


84-4 


87-9 


91-4 


95 


98-5 


30x46 


72-2 


76-5 


80-7 


85-1 


89-3 


93-5 


97-7 


102 


106 


110 


114 


119 


31x46 


74-8 


79-2 


83-6 


88 


92-4 


96-8 


101 


105 


110 


114 


119 


123 


34x36 


64-2 


68 


71-8 


75-5 


79-3 


83-1 


86-9 


90-7 


94-5 


98-2 


102 


106 


36x36 


68 


72 


76 


80 


84 


88 


92 


96 


100 


104 


108 


112 


36x46 


86-8 


92 


97-1 


102 


107 


112 


117 


122 


127 


132 


138 


143 


36x48 


90-6 


96 


101 


106 


112 


117 


122 


128 


133 


138 


144 


149 


38x48 


95-6 


101 


107 


112 


118 


124 


129 


135 


140 


146 


152 


157 


40x48 


100 


106 


112 


118 


124 


130 


136 


142 


148 


154 


160 


166 


40 x 50 


104 


110 


117 


123 


129 


135 


141 


148 


154 


160 


166 


172 


45x56 


132 


140 


147 


155 


163 


171 


179 


186 


194 


202 


210 


218 



31 



TABLE 


Showing Equivalent Sizes and Weights of 


WRAPPING PAPERS-continued. 


Size. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


36x45 


145 


150 


155 


160 


165 


170 


175 


180 


185 


190 


195 


200 


20x24 


42-9 


44-4 


45-9 


47-3 


48-8 


50-3 


51-8 


53-3 


54-8 


56-3 


57-8 


59-3 


20x25 


44-7 


46-2 


47-8 


49-3 


50-9 


524 


53-9 


55-5 


57 


58-6 


60-1 


61-6 


21x26 


48-7 


50-4 


52-1 


53-8 


55-3 


57 


58-6 


60-4 


62-2 


64 


65-6 


67-3 


20x30 


53-3 


55-2 


57 


58-8 


60-7 


62-6 


64-6 


66-6 


68-5 


70-3 


72-2 


74 


21x31 


58 


60 


62 


64 


66 


68 


70 


72 


74 


76 


78 


80 


20x28 


50 


51-7 


534 


55-2 


56-9 


58-6 


60-3 


62 


63-7 


65-4 


67-2 


69 


22^X29 


58-5 


60-5 


62-5 


64-5 


66-5 


68-5 


70-5 


72-5 


74-5 


76-5 


78-5 


80-5 


22x32 


62-8 


65 


67-1 


69-3 


71-5 


73-6 


75-8 


78 


80-2 


824 


84-6 


86-8 


21x34 


63-8 


66 


68-2 


70-4 


72-6 


74-8 


77 


79-2 


81-4 


83-6 


85-8 


88 


22x35 


68-8 


71-2 


73-6 


76 


78-3 


80-7 


83-1 


85-5 


87-9 


90-3 


92-6 


95 


23x34 


69-8 


72-3 


74-7 


77-1 


79-5 


81-9 


84-5 


86-9 


89-3 


91-7 


93-9 


96-4 


24x30 


644 


66-6 


68-8 


71 


73-3 


75-5 


77-7 


79-9 


82-2 


84-4 


86-6 


88-8 


24x32 


68-7 


71-1 


73-5 


75-9 


78-2 


80-6 


83 


85-4 


87-8 


90-2 


92-5 


94-8 


24x36 


77.3 


80 


82-6 


85-3 


88 


90-6 


93-3 


96 


98-6 


101 


104 


106 


24x40 


86 


89 


91-5 


94-5 


97-5 


100 


103 


106 


109 


112 


115 


118 


26x36 


83-7 


86-6 


89-5 


92-4 


95-3 


98-2 


101 


104 


107 


109 


110 


111 


27 x 34 


82-1 


85 


87-8 


90-6 


93-5 


96-3 


991 


102 


105 


108 


110 


113i 
155 


28x45 


112 


116 


120 


124 


128 


132 


136 


140 


143 


147 


151 


29x44 


114 


118 


122 


126 


130 


134 


138 


141 


145 


149 


153 


157 


29x45 


117 


121 


125 


129 


133 


137 


141 


145 


149 


153 


157 


161 


30x38 


102 


105 


109 


112 


116 


119 


123 


126 


130 


133 


137 


140 


30x46 


123 


127 


131 


136 


140 


144 


148 


153 


157 


161 


165 


170 


31x46 


127 


132 


136 


141 


145 


149 


154 


158 


163 


167 


171 


176 


34x36 


109 


113 


117 


121 


124 


128 


132 


136 


140 


143 


147 


151 


36 x 36 


116 


120 


124 


128 


132 


136 


140 


144 


148 


152 


156 


160 


36 x 46 


148 


153 


158 


163 


168 


173 


178 


184 


189 


194 


199 


204 


36x48 


154 


160 


165 


170 


176 


181 


186 


192 


197 


202 


207 


213 


38x48 


163 


169 


174 


180 


185 


191 


197 


202 


208 


214 


219 


225 


40x48 


172 


178 


183 


189 


195 


201 


207 


213 


219 


224 


230 


236 


40x50 


179 


185 


191 


197 


203 


209 


215 


222 


228 


234 


240 


246 


45x56 


225 


233 


241 


249 


256 


264 


272 


280 


287 


295 


303 


311 



32 





COST TABLE 


Showing Prices per Ton from Id. to 3^d. per lb., 




less Discount. 




Id. 


lid. 


Ud. 


l|d. 


Hd. 


lfd. 




£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


Net 


9 6 S 


10 10 


11 13 4 


12 16 8 


14 


15 3 4 


HZ 


9 4 4 


10 7 U 


11 10 5 


12 13 5* 


13 16 6 


14 19 61 


2i% 


9 2 


10 4 9 


11 7 6 


12 10 3' 


13 13 


14 15 9 


mx 


8 19 8 


10 2 1* 


11 4 7 


12 7 0* 


13 9 6 


14 11 11* 


5 X 


8 17 4 


9 19 6" 


11 1 8 


1 i 3 10" 


13 6 


14 8 2" 


6i% 


8 15 


9 16 10* 


10 18 9 


12 71 


13 2 6 


14 4 41 


nx 


8 12 8 


9 14 3~ 


10 15 10 


U 17 5 


12 19 


14 7" 


8|% 


8 10 4 


9 11 7* 


10 12 11 


11 14 2* 


12 15 6 


13 16 9* 


10 x 


8 8 


9 9 


10 10 


11 11 0" 


12 12 


13 13 0" 


Ui% 


8 5 8 


9 6 41 10 7 1 


11 7 9* 


12 8 6 


13 9 2* 


i2i% 


8 3 4 


9 3 9 10 4 2 


114 7 


12 5 


13 5 5 


13|% 


8 10 


9 1 Hi 10 1 3 


11 1 41 


12 1 6 


13 1 7h 


15 % 


7 17 8 


8 18 6 9 18 4 


10 18 2 


11 18 


12 17 10" 




lfd. 


l|d. 


2d. 


2|d. 


2|d. 


2fd. 




£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s d. 


Net 


16 6 8 


17 10 


18 13 4 


19 16 8 


21 


22 3 4 


li% 


16 2 7 


17 5 7* 


18 8 8 


19 11 8i 


20 14 9 


21 17 91 


2i% 


15 18 6 


17 1 3 


18 4 


19 6 9 


20 9 6 


21 12 3 


3|% 


15 14 5 


16 16 10i 


17 19 4 


19 1 9| 


20 4 3 


n 6 81 


5 % 


15 10 4 


16 12 6 


17 14 8 


18 16 10 


19 19 


21 1 2 


6i% 


15 6 3 


16 8 U 


17 10 


18 11 10* 


19 13 9 


20 15 7* 


V| % 


15 2 2 


16 3 9 


17 5 4 


18 6 11" 


19 8 6 


20 10 l" 


8|% 


14 18 1 


15 19 41 


17 8 


18 1 1H 


19 3 3 


20 4 6* 


10 % 


14 14 


15 15 


16 16 


17 17 0" 


18 18 


19 19 0" 


"1% 


14 9 11 


15 10 7* 


16 11 4 


17 12 OJ 


18 12 9 


19 13 SI 


12J% 


14 5 10 


15 6 3 


16 6 8 


17 7 1 


18 7 6 


19 7 11 


mx 


14 1 9 


15 1 10i 


16 2 


17 2 u 


18 2 3 


19 2 U[ 


15 % 


13 17 8 


14 17 6 


15 17 4 


16 17 2 


17 17 


18 16 10" 




2^d. 


2|d. 


2|d. 


2fd. 


3d. 


aid. 




£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


Net 


23 6 8 


24 10 I) 


25 13 4 


•/6 16 8 


28 


29 3 4 


H% 


23 10 


24 3 10* 


25 6 n 


26 9 m 


27 13 


28 16 Oh 


2k X 


22 15 


23 17 9" 


25 6 


26 3 3 


27 6 


28 8 9" 


3|% 


22 9 2 


23 11 7* 


24 It 1 


25 16 6i. 


26 19 


28 1 ?! 


5 % 


22 3 4 


23 5 6 


24 7 8 


25 9 10 


26 12 9 


27 14 2" 


61% 


21 17 6 


22 19 4£ 


24 1 3 


25 3 U 


26 5 


27 6 101 


nx 


21 11 8 


22 13 3 


23 14 10 


24 16 5 


25 18 


26 19 7" 


8f% 


21 5 10 


22 7 1* 


23 8 5 


24 9 8* 


25 11 


26 12 3+ 


10 % 


21 


22 1 0" 


23 2 


24 3 


25 4 


26 5 0" 


1H% 


20 14 2 


21 14 101 


22 15 7 


23 16 31 


24 17 


25 17 8! 


12£% 


20 8 4 


21 8 9 


22 9 2 


23 9 7 


24 10 


25 10 5 


13|% 


20 2 6 


21 2 7 A 


22 2 9 


23 2 101 


24 3 


25 3 1* 


15 % 


19 10 8 


20 16 6 


21 16 4 


22 16 2 


23 16 


24 15 10 



33 







COST 


TABLE 






Sh 


owing Prices per Ton from 3^d. to 5d. per lb., 






less Discount. 








HA. 


3|d. 


HA. 


3fd. 


3|d. 




£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


Net 


30 6 8 


31 10 


32 13 4 


33 16 8 


35 


il% 


29 19 1 


31 2 H 


32 5 2 


33 8 21 


34 11 3 


2*% 


29 11 6 


30 14 3 


31 17 


32 19 9 


34 2 6 


3|% 


29 3 11 


30 6 4* 


31 8 10 


32 11 Zh 


33 13 9 


5 % 


28 16 4 


29 18 6" 


31 8 


32 2 10 


33 5 


6i% 


28 8 9 


29 10 7* 


30 12 6 


31 14 41 


32 16 3 


. 7*% 


28 2 2 


29 2 9* 


30 4 4 


31 5 11- 


32 7 6 


8|% 


27 13 7 


2S 14 101 


29 16 2 


SO 17 51 


31 18 9 


10 % 


27 6 


28 7 0" 


29 8 


30 9 


31 10 


111% 


26 18 5 


27 19 1*1 


28 19 10 


30 6A 


31 1 3 


12*% 


26 10 10 


27 11 3 


28 11 8 


29 12 r 


39 12 6 


13f % 


26 3 3 


27 3 41 


28 3 6 


29 3 71 


30 3 9 


15 % 


25 15 8 


26 15 6 


27 15 4 


28 15 2 


29 15 





HA. 


id. 


HA- 


HA. 


4|d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


Net 


36 3 4 


37 6 S 


. 38 10 


39 13 4 


40 16 8 


11% 


35 14 31 


36 17 4 


38 41 


39 3 5 


40 6 51 


2*% 


35 5 3 


36 8 


37 10 9" 


38 13 6 


39 16 3 


3|% 


34 16 2£ 


35 18 * 8 


37 1 11 


38 3 7 


39 6 0* 


5 % 


34 7 2 


35 9 4 


36 11 6 


37 13 8 


38 15 10 


HX 


33 18 1J 


35 


36 1 101 


37 3 9 


38 5 71 


HX 


33 9 1 


34 10 8 


35 12 3 


36 13 10 


37 15 5 


8|% 


33 01 


34 1 4 


35 2 71 


36 3 11 


37 5 21 


10 % 


32 11 


33 12 


31 13 


35 14 


36 15 


111% 


32 1 111 


33 2 8 


34 3 41 


35 4 1 


36 4 91 


i2i% 


31 12 ll" 


32 13 4 


33 13 9 


34 14 2 


35 14 7 


13|% 


31 3 101 


32 4 


33 4 11 


34 4 3 


35 4 41 


15 % 


30 14 l(f 


31 14 S 


32 14 6 


33 14 4 


34 14 2 




4|d. 


4£d. 


4|d. 


HA. 


5d. 




£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


£ s. d. 


Net 


42 


43 3 4 


44 6 8 


45 10 


46 13 4 


H% 


41 9 6 


42 12 61 


43 15 7 


44 18 71 


46 1 8 


21% 


40 19 


42 1 9 


43 4 6 


44 7 3 


45 10 


3|% 


40 8 6 


41 10 m 


42 13 5 


43 15 101 


44 18 4 


5 % 


39 IS 


41 2' 


42 2 4 


43 4 6 


44 6 8 


61% 


39 7 6 


40 9 41 


41 11 3 


42 13 11 


43 15 


71% 


3S 17 


39 18 7 


41 2 


42 1 9 


43 3 4 


8|% 


38 6 6 


39 7 91 


40 9 1 


41 10 41 


42 11 8 


10 X 


37 16 


38 17 


39 18 


40 19 


42 


111% 


37 5 6 


38 6 21 


39 6 11 


40 7 71 


41 8 4 


12*% 


36 15 


37 15 5 


38 15 10 


39 16 3 


40 16 8 


13|% 


36 4 6 


37 4 71 


38 4 9 


39 4 101 


40 5 


15 % 


35 14 


36 13 10 


37 13 8 


38 13 6 


39 13 4 



34 



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36 





TABLE 


Giving the Weight in lbs. and ozs. of a Ream of Paper 


of different sizes from the weight in grammes of one sheet 




one metre square. 




(Majjer.J 


Grammes 


Demy. 


Royal. 


Dble. 
F'scap. 


Dble. 
Crown. 


Im- 
perial. 








per 

Square 


































Metre. 


17* X 22j 


20x25 


17x27 


20x30 


22x29 


22x32 


25X30 


46x36 




lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


20 


5 6 


6 13 


6 4 


8 3 


8 llj 


9 10 


10 4 


22 10 


21 


5 101 


7 3 


6 1* 


8 9i 


9 2* 


10 1* 


10 12 


23 12 


22 


5 15 


7 8 


6 14* 


9 


9 9* 


10 9* 


11 4* 


24 14 


23 


6 3 


7 13* 


7 3* 


9 7* 


10 0* 


11 1 


11 12* 


26 


24 


6 7* 


8 3 


7 8* 


9 13 


10 7* 


11 8*. 


12 4* 


27 2 


25 


6 12 


8 8i 


7 13* 


10 4 


10 14* 


12 


12 12* 


28 4 


26 


7 


8 14 


8 2* 


10 11 


11 5* 


12 8 


13 4* 


29 6 


27 


7 41 

7 81 


9 3* 


8 7* 


11 1 


11 12J 


13 


13 12* 


30 8 


28 


9 9* 


8 121 


11 8 


12 3* 


13 8 


14 4* 


31 10 


29 


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9 1* 


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12 10* 


14 


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32 12 


30 


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12 41 


13 1* 


14 6* 


15 5* 


33 14 


31 


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12 11 


13 8* 


14 14* 


15 14 


35 


32 


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13 2 


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15 6* 


16 6 


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33 


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11 4 


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13 9 


14 6* 
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15 14* 


16 14 


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10 11 


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16 6 


17 6 


38 6 


35 


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11 


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15 5 


16 14 


17 14* 


39 9 


36 


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12 4* 


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15 12 


17 6 


18 6* 


40 11 


37 


9 151 


12 10 


11 10 


15 3 


10 3 


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18 15 


41 13 


38 


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15 10 


16 10 


18 6 


19 7 


43 


39 


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12 4 


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19 15 


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13 11 


12 9 


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19 4 


20 8 


45 4 


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17 4 


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21 


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21 8 


47 8 


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13 7 


17 10 


18 12 


20 10 


22 


48 10 


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22 8 


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19 10 


21 10 


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23 9 


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37 



BRITISH TRADE CUSTOMS. 

The following are the recognised customs of the 
Trade relative to Paper Making, provided that no 
agreement to the contrary has been made at the time 
of the order between the vendor and the purchaser : — 

I.— SALE. 

Paper is sold either at a price per ream, based upon its 
nominal weight, or at the actual weight by the pound, packed in 
reams or in reels. Wrapping Paper is sold by cwt. at scale 
io eight. 

Machine-Made Papers. 

(1) A ream of paper, unless otherwise specified, contains 480 



(2) An " Insides" ream contains 480 sheets all " Insides,'' i.e. 

20 good or inside quires of 24 sheets each. 

(3) A " Perfect " ream for printing papers contains 516 sheets. 

(4) A ream of Envelope Paper contains 504 sheets. 

(5) A ream of News contains 500 sheets. 

(6) A "Mill" ream contains 480 sheets, and consists of 18 
" good " or " Insides " quires of 24 sheets each, and two 
" Outsides " quires of 24 sheets each. 

(7) Reams are classed as " Good." •' Retree," and " Outsides." 

The price of " Retree " is 10 per cent. , and of " Outsides " 
20 per cent., lower than that of " Good." 

Hand-Made Papers. 

(8) A "Mill" ream, "Good," or " Retree," contains 472 

sheets, and consists of 18 "Insides" quires of 24 sheets 
each, and two " Outsides " of 20 sheets each. 

(9) An " Insides " ream, " Good," or " Retree," contains 480 
sheets, and consists of 20 " Insides " quires of 24 sheets 
each. 

In all cases the " Outsides " quires are placed one at the top and 
one at the bottom of the ream. 



II.— VARIATIONS IN WEIGHT. 

(1) If the total actual weight, or that of any individual ream 
or reel, does not vary by more than 5 per cent., either 
above or below the ordered weight, the order is duly 
executed. 

(2) When the purchaser has fixed a maximum weight per 
ream, the order is duly executed if the paper be not more 
than 10 per cent, under weight. 

(3) But for all papers of substance under G lbs. Demy 
(17^ X 22^), and above 50 lbs. Demy, the actual weight 
may vary 10 per cent., either over or under. 

(4) In the case of reels, claims for short length can only be 
made when the shortage exceeds 5 per cent., and then 
only for the amount of any excess over and above 
such 5 per cent. 

(5) Payment for paper in reels, according to the yield of sale- 
able copies, cannot be claimed by the purchaser unless 
so stipulated at the time of the order. 

III.— VARIATIONS IN MEASUREMENT. 

(1) The size of the paper in reams may vary, but in " Good " 
reams the variation must not exceed ^ per cent., with 
a minimum of §- inch either way. 

(2) The width of paper in reels must not vary more than 
^ per cent. 

N.B. — Clauses II. and III. are not applicable to haud-made 
paper. 

IV.— SPECIAL MAKINGS. 

(1) For makings of special weight, size, tint, water-mark, &c, 

not having a regular sale in the market the order is 
considered to be duly executed if the quantity made is 
not more than 5 per cent, under the quantity ordered, 
and the purchaser is bound to take at full price any 
reasonable excess. In Writing and Drawing Papers it 
is customary for the buyer to take with the ' k Good ' 
the " Ketree " and " Outsides." 

(2) Where a maximum quantity is stipulated for when order- 
ing, the order is cous-ideied <Hily executed if it amounts 
to not less than ( J0 per cent, of the stipulated quantity. 

V.— MATERIALS. 

(1) Unless otherwise expressly stipulated in the order, the 
maker is absolutely free as to what materials" he shall use. 



39 

VI.— WRAPPING UP. 

(1) The weight of necessary wrappers and string for reams 
and reels is to he included in the chargeable weight of 
the paper. 

VII.— MODE OF PAYMENT. 

(1) The customary terms of payment are cash within 30 days 
from the end of the month in which shipment was made 
for Export Sales, and within 30 days from the end of the 
month in which delivery was effected for Home Sales. 

VIII. — RETURNED EMPTIES. 

(1) Carriage on returned empty Frames, Centres, Boards, 
Boxes. Packing-Cases, &c, is payable by Customers 
returning same. 



AMERICAN TRADE CUSTOMS. 

The Book Paper Regulations as Amended by the Book 
Paper Division of the American Pulp and Paper 
Association. 
The amended trade customs of the book paper division are 

as follows : — 

1. Terms of all sales to be on a basis of cash in thirty (30) 
days, less three per cent. (3 %). 

2. Minimum basis of weight for standard papers to be as 
follows : Machine finished, 25 by 38, 40 lbs. to 500 sheets ; 
supercalendered, 25 by 38, 45 lbs. to 500 sheets. For lighter 
weight papers the extra cost of manufacture to be added 
according to weight, estimated as follows : On machine 
finished paper, for each lb. cut below 25 by 38, 40 lbs. to 500 
sheets, to and including 25 by 38, 30 lbs. to 500 sheets, five (5) 
cents per 100 lbs. additional ; for each lb. cut below 25 by 38, 
30 lbs. 500 sheets, ten (10) cents per 100 lbs. additional. On 
supercalendered paper, for each lb. cut below 25 by 38, 45 lbs. 
to 500 sheets, to and including 25 by 38, 35 lbs. to 500 sheets, 
five (5) cents per 100 lbs, additional ; for each lb. below 25 
by 38, 35 lbs. to 500 sheets, ten (10) cents per 100 lbs. 
additional. 

3. In all cases, on both sheet and roll orders, wrappers and 
twines to be charged at the price of the paper, the weight of 
wrappers and twine not to exceed three per cent. (3 %) of the 
weight billed. 

4. Rolls to be charged at the gross weight, including cores 
and wrappers. 



40 



5. Customers to be credited with the net weight of core^g 
returned, stripped, at the full selling price of the paper. 

6. No printed waste to be returned and no paper taken 
back unless damaged before delivery ; and in case customer 
desires to make claim for damaged paper same must be 
reported immediately to the manufacturer, in order that the 
paper may be inspected before it has been printed. 

7. In billing paper no allowance to be made for waste. 

8. Manufacturers to bear the cost of freight on cores, heads 
and rods returned. 

9. When cores are returned no allowance to be made for 
paper remaining on same, except that allowance may be made 
for clean white waste at market price for such waste. 

10. The average variation in the nominal weight not to 
exceed four per cent. (4 %) above or below the ordered weight, 
paper within this range to constitute a good delivery. 

11. Paper shall be billed at the ordered weight, unless 
shortage is in excess of two and one-half per cent. (2^ %), 
in which case it shall bo billed at actual scale weight. 

12. No paper shall be made one weight and stencilled another. 

13. Paper shall be marked by the manufacturer the ream 
weight ordered, and there shall be no evasion by substituting 
letters or symbols for figures. 

14. The base selling price shall be for paper put up in rolls 
without heads and rods, and sheet paper put up in bundles 
soft fold. 

15. For paper finished in any manner except as specified 
in Article 14, additional cost thereof shall be added, estimated 
as follows : If finished flat in skeleton frames, not less than 
ten (10) cents per 100 lbs. shall be added to the base selling 
price ; if finished in solid board frames top and bottom, or 
in cases, not less than twenty (20) cents per 3.00 lbs. shall be 
added to the base selling price. 

1 6. Caselinings shallbe charged at the selling price of thepaper. 

17. For trimming paper the cost thereof, estimated at 
not less than ten (10) cents per 100 lbs., shall be added to the 
base selling price. 

18. For ream wrapping the cost thereof, estimated at not 
less than ten (10) cents per 100 lbs., shall be added to the base 
selling price. 

19. For all paper of any shade other than white or natural 
the extra cost thereof, estimated at not less than twenty-five 
(25) cents per 100 lbs., shall be added to the base selling price. 

20. Orders shall be accepted subject to over runs or under 
runs, as follows : Under two (2) tons, 15 per cent. ; from two 
(2) to five (5) tons, 10 per cent. ; from five (5) to twenty (20) 
tons, 5 per cent. : from twenty (20) tons upward, 3 per cent. 



41 



SIZES OF PAPERS 
Current in France and Belgium. 







Centi- 


Cm. 




English Inches. 


metres. 


Carres. 


Cloche ... 


1178 x 1572 


33 x 40 


= 1200 


Pot 


1218 x 1572 


31 x 40 


= 1240 


Telliere Beige 


1336 x 16 90 


34 x 43 


= 1462 


Telliere 


13 36 x 17 29 


34 x 44 


= 1496 


Couronne 


1415 x 1808 


36 x 46 


= 1656 


Double Procureur 


13 73 x 2082 


35 x 53 


= 1855 


Ecu 


15-72 x 2043 


40 x 52 


= 2080 


Ecu Beige 


1572 x 20 83 


40 x 53 


= 2120 


Coquille 


1730 x 22 00 


44 x 56 


= 2464 


Carre 


1768 x 22 00 


45 x 55 


= 25.0 


Cavalier 


18 08 x 24-35 


46 x 62 


= 2852 


Royal 


1886 x 2476 


48 x 63 


= 3024 


Raisin 


19 65 x 25 54 


50 x 65 


= 3250 


Petit Soleil 


19 65 x 2672 


50 x 68 


= 3400 


Jesus 


2161 x 27 51 


55 x 70 


= 3850 


Jesus Beige 


2122 x 28 69 


54 x 73 


- 3942 


Grand Soleil 


22-40 x 31-44 


57 x 80 


= 4560 


Elephant 


24 36 x 30-26 


62 x 77 


= 4774 


Colombier Beige ... 


24 36 x 33 40 


62 x 85 


= 5270 


Colombier 


2436 x 33-80 


62 x 86 


= 5332 


Grand Colombier... 


24-75 x 35 37 


63 x 90 


= 5670 


Grand Aigle 


2751 x 39 30 


70x100- 


= 7000 



The figures in the following tables 

indicate the weight in grammes of a sheet measuring 

one square metre. 



42 





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53 



CHAPTER II. 



COMPARATIVE DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE 

As indicated by the different thermometers, viz. : — 
Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur. 

(C. = Centigrade ; E. = Fahrenheit ; R. = Reaumur.) 
Fahrenheit to Centigrade f (F.°— 3->) = C.° 
Centigrade to Fahrenheit y + 32 = F. 
Reaumur to Fahrenheit -^ + 32 = F. 
Fahrenheit to Reaumur £ (F.°-32) = R.° 
Centigrade to Reaumur y = R. 
Reaumur to Centigrade — = 0. 


Degrees. 


Degrees. 


Fah. 


Centi. 


Re. 


Fah. 


Centi. 


Re. 


212 
211 
210 
209 
208 
207 
206 
205 
204 
203 
^02 
201 
200 
199 
198 
197 
196 
195 
194 
193 
192 
191 
190 
189 
188 


100 
99-44 

98-89 

98-33 

97-78 

97-22 

96-67 

96-11 

95-55 

95 

94-44 

93-89 

93-33 

92-78 

92-22 

91-67 

91-11 

90-55 

90 

89-44 

88-89 

88-33 

87-78 

87-22 

86-67 


80 

79-56 

79-11 

78-67 

78-22 

77-78 

77-33 

76-89 

76-44 

76 

75-56 

75-11 

74-67 

74-22 

73-78 

73-33 

72-89 

72-44 

72 

71-56 

71-11 

70-67 

70-22 

69-78 

69-33 


187 
186 
185 
184 
183 
182 
181 
180 
179 
178 
177 
176 
175 
174 
173 
172 
171 
170 
169 
168 
167 
166 
165 
164 
163 


86-11 

85-55 

85 

84-44 

83-89 

83-33 

82-78 

82-22 

81-67 

81-11 

80-55 

80 

79-44 

78-89 

78-33 

77-78 

77-22 

76-67 

76-11 

75-55 

75 

74-44 

73-89 

73-33 

72-78 


68-89 

68-44 

68 

67-56 

67-11 

66-67 

66-22 

65-78 

65-33 

64-89 

64-44 

64 

63-56 

63-11 

62-67 

62-22 

61-78 

61-33 

60-89 

60-44 

60 

59-56 

59-11 

58-67 

58-22 



5+ 



COMPARATIVE DEGREES OE TEMPERATURE— 






continued. 






Degrees. 


Degrees. 


Fah. 


Centi. 


Re. 


Fab. 


Centi. 


Re. 


162 


72-22 


57-78 


127 


52-78 


42-22 


161 


71-67 


57-33 


126 


52-22 


41-78 


160 


71-11 


56-89 


125 


51-67 


41-33 


159 


70-55 


56-44 


124 


51-11 


40-89 


158 


70 


56 


123 


50-55 


40-44 


157 


69-44 


55-56 


122 


50 


40 


156 


68-89 


55-11 


121 


49-44 


39-56 


155 


68-33 


54-67 


120 


48-89 


39-11 


154 


67-78 


54-22 


119 


48-33 


38-67 


153 


67-22 


53-78 


118 


47-79 


38-22 


152 


66-67 


53-33 


117 


47-22 


37-78 


151 


66-11 


52-89 


116 


46-67 - 


37-33 


150 


65-55 


52-4 4 


115 


46-11 


36-89 


149 


65 


52 


114 


45-55 


36-44 


148 


64-44 


51 -56 


113 


45 


36 


147 


63-89 


51-11 


112 


44-44 


35-56 


146 


63-33 


50-67 


111 


43-89 


35-11 


145 


62-78 


50-22 


110 


43-33 


34-67 


144 


62-22 


49-78 


109 


42-78 


34-22 


143 


61-67 


49 33 


108 


42-22 


33-78 


142 


61-11 


48-89 


107 


41-67 


33-33 


141 


60-55 


48-44 


106 


41-11 


32-89 


140 


60 


48 


105 


40-55 


32-44 


139 


59-44 


47-56 


104 


40 


32 


138 


58-89 


47-11 


103 


39-44 


31-56 


137 


58-33 


46-67 


102 


38-89 


31-11 


136 


57-78 


46-22 


101 


38-33 


30-67 


135 


57-22 


45-78 


100 


37-78 


30-22 


134 


56-67 


45-33 


99 


37-22 


29-78 


133 


56-11 


44-89 


98 


36-67 


29-33 


132 


55-55 


44-44 


97 


36-11 


28-89 


131 


55 


44 


96 


35-55 


28-44 


130 


54-44 


43-56 


95 


35 


28 


129 


53-89 


43-11 


94 


34-44 


27-56 


128 


53-33 


42-67 


93 


33-89 


27-11 



58 



COMPARATIVE DEGREES OF 


TEMPERATURE — 






conti 


wed. 






Degrees. 




Degrees. 


Fah. 


Centi. 


Re. 


Fah. 


Centi. 


Re. 


92 


33-33 


26-67 


61 


16-11 


12-89 


91 


32-78 


26-22 


CO 


15-55 


12-44 


90 


32-22 


25-78 


59 


15 


12 


89 


3167 


25 33 


58 


14-44 


11-56 


88 


31-11 


24-89 


57 


13-89 


11-11 


87 


30-55 


24-44 


56 


13-33 


10-67 


86 


30 


24 


55 


12-78 


10-22 


85 


29-44 


23-56 


54 


12-22 


9-78 


84 


28-89 


23-11 


53 


11-67 


9-33 


83 


28-33 


22'67 


52 


11-11 


8-89 


82 


27*78 


22-22 


51 


10-55 


8-44 


81 


27*22 


21-78 


10 


10 


8 


80 


26-67 


21 -33 


49 


9 44 


7-56 


79 


26-11 


20-89 


48 


8-89 


7-11 


78 


25-55 


20-44 


47 


8-33 


6-67 


77 


25 


20 


46 


7-78 


6-22 


76 


24-44 


19-56 


45 


7-22 


5-78 


75 


23-89 


19-11 


44 


6-67 


5-33 


74 


23-33 


18-67 


43 


6-11 


4-89 


73 


22-78 


18-22 


42 


5-55 


4-44 


72 


22-22 


17-78 


41 


5 


4 


71 


21-67 


17-33 


40 


4-44 


3-56 


70 


21-11 


16-89 


39 


3-89 


3-11 


69 


20-55 


16-44 


38 


3-33 


2-67 


68 


20 


16 


37 


2-78 


2-22 


67 


19-44 


15-56 


36 


2-22 


1-78 


66 


18-89 


15-11 


35 


1-67 


1-33 


65 


18-33 


14-67 


34 


I'll 


0-89 


64 


17-78 


14-^2 


33 


0-55 


0"44 


63 


17-22 


13-78 


32 








62 


16-67 


13-33 









HEATING WITH STEAM. 

A British thermal unit (B.T.U.) is that amount of heat 
required to raise 1 lb. of water at its maximum density 
(39-1° Fah.) through one degree Fahrenheit. 

The capacity of a bo ly for heat is measured by determining 
the number of units of heat required to raise that body one 
degree of temperature. 

The specific heat of a body is the ratio of the quantity of 
heat required to raise that body one degree to the quantity 
required to raise an equal weight of water one degree. The 
following table gives the specific heats of various bodies : — 



TABLE OF SPECIFIC HEATS. 




Specific 
Heat. 




Specific 
Heat. 


Metals. 
Cast Iron ... 


0-1298 


Liquids. 

Water 

Caustic Lye — 


1-000 


Wrought Iron ... 


0-1138 


1-07S0 Sp. Gr. ... 


0-919 


Zinc 


0-0955 


1-0480 „ „ .. 


0-942 


Copper 


0-0951 


1-0216 „ „ ... 
1-0124 „ „ ... 


0-^68 
0983 


Brass 


• 0-0939 


Earths, &c. 




Tin 


0-05(39 


Brick (burntclayj 


0-185 


Lead 


0-0314 


Gases (under 
constant pressure). 




Woods, &c. 
Pine ... 


0-650 


Air 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 


0-2379 
0-2182 
0-2440 


Oak 


0-570 


Carbonic Acid ... 


0-2164 


Birch 


0-480 


,, Oxide . 


0-2479 


Esparto Straw, 




Sulphurous Acid 

(SO a ) 


01543 


&c. (about) .. 


0-550 


Water Vapour ... 


0-4750 



Latent heat is the quantity of heat which must be communi- 
cated to a body in a given state, in order to convert it into 
another state without changing its temperature. 



57 



PROPERTIES OE SATURATED STEAM. 



Absolute 


Pressure 


1 
Tempera- 
ture of 
Boiling 
Point in 

Degrees F. 


Total Heat 
in Thermal 
Units per 
lb. of Steam 
from 0° F. 


Weight of 1 


Cubic Feet 
of Steam 


Pressure 

injfo. per 

Sq. In. 


above 
atmo- 
sphere. 


Cubic Foot 

of Steam 

in lb. 


from 1 Cubic 

Foot of 

Water at 

62° F. 


1 




102-1 


1144-5 


•0030 


20582 


2 


— 


126-3 


1151-7 


•0058 


10721 


3 


— 


141-6 


1156-6 


•0085 


7322 


4 


— 


153-1 


1160-1 


•0112 


5583 


5 


— 


162-3 


1162-9 


•0138 


4527 


6 


— 


170-2 


iu;5-3 


•0163 


3813 


7 


— 


176-9 


1167-3 


•0189 


3298 


8 


— 


182 -9 


1169-2 


•0214 


2909 


9 


— 


188-3 


1170-8 


•0239 


2604 


10 


— 


193-3 


1172-3 


•0264 


2358 


11 


— 


197 8 


1173-7 


•0289 


2157 


12 


-- 


202-0 


1175-0 


•0314 


1986 


13 


— 


205-9 


1176-2 


•0338 


1842 


14 


— 


209-6 


1177-3 


•0362 


1720 


14-7 





212-0 


1178-1 


•0380 


1642 


15 


0-3 


213-1 


1178-4 


•0387 


1610 


16 


1-3 


216-3 


1179-4 


•0411 


1515 


17 


2-3 


219-6 


1180-3 


•0435 


1431 


18 


3-3 


222-4 


1181-2 


•0459 


1357 


19 


4-3 


225-3 


1182-1 


•0483 


1290 


20 


5-3 


228-0 


1182-9 


•0507 


1229 


21 


6-3 


230-6 


1183-7 


•0531 


1174 


22 


7-3 


233-1 


1184-5 


•0555 


1123 


23 


8-3 


235-5 


1185-2 


•0580 


1075 


24 


9-3 


237-8 


1185-9 


•0601 


1036 


25 


10-3 


240-1 


1186-6 


•0625 


996 


26 


113 


242-3 


1187-3 


•0650 


958 


27 


12 3 


244-4 


1187-8 


0673 


926 


28 


13-3 


246-4 


1188-4 


•0896 


895 


29 


14-3 


24* -4 


1189-L 


•0719 


866 


30 


15-3 


250-4 


1189-8 


•0743 


838 


31 


16-3 


252-2 


1190-4 


•0766 


813 


32 


17-3 


254-1 


1190 9 


•0789 


789 


33 


183 


255-9 


1191-5 


•0812 


767 


34 


19-3 


257-6 


1192-0 


•0835 


746 


35 


20-3 


259-3 


1192-5 


•0858 


72fi 


36 


21-3 


260-9 


1193 


•0881 


707 



58 



Properties 


of Saturated Steam— continued. 


Absolute 
Pressure 


Pressure 
above 


Tempera- 
ture or 
Boiling 
Point in 

Degrees F. 


Total Heat w 
in Thermal p 
Units per ^ 
lb. of Steam OI 
from 0° F. 


ght of 1 
Oic Foot 


Cubic Feet 

of Steam 

from 1 Cubic 


in lb. per 
Sq. In. 


atmo- 
sphere. 


Steam 
nib. 


Foot of 

Water at 

62° F. 


37 


223 


262-6 


1193-5 


0^05 


688 


38 


23-3 


264-2 


1194 


0929 


671 


39 


24.3 


265-8 


1194-5 


0952 


655 


40 


25 3 


267-3 


1194-9 


0974 


640 


41 


26-3 


268-7 


1195-4 


0996 


625 


42 


27-3 


270-2 


1195-8 


1020 


611 


43 


28-3 


271-6 


1196-2 


1042 


598 


44 


29-3 


273-0 


1196-6 


1065 


585 


45 


30-3 


274-4 


1197-1 


1089 


572 


46 


31-3 


275-8 


1197-5 


1111 


561 


47 


32-3 


277-1 


1197-9 


1133 


550 


48 


33-3 


278-4 


1198-3 


1156 


539 


49 


34-3 


279-7 


1198-7 


1179 


529 


50 


35-3 


281-0 


1199-1 


1202 


518 


51 


36 3 


282-3 


1199-5 


1224 


509 


52 


37-3 


283-5 


1199-9 


1246 


500 


53 


38-3 


284-7 


1200-3 


1269 


49 L 


54 


39-3 


285-9 


1200-6 


1291 


482 


55 


40-3 • 


287-1 


1201-0 


1314 


474 


56 


41-3 


288-2 


1201-3 


1336 


466 


57 


42-3 


289-3 


1201-7 


1364 


458 


58 


43-3 


290-4 


1202-0 


1380 


451 


59 


44-3 


291-6 


1202-4 


1403 


444 


60 


45-3 


292-7 


1202-7 


1425 


437 


61 


46 -3 


293-8 


1203-1 


1447 


430 


62 


47 3 


294-8 


1203 4 


1469 


424 


63 


48-3 


295-9 


1203-7 


1493 


417 


64 


49-3 


296-9 


1204-0 


1516 


411 


65 


50-3 


298-0 


12043 


1538 


405 


66 


51-3 


299-0 


1204-6 


1560 


399 


67 


52-3 


300-0 


1204-9 


!583 


393 


68 


53-3 


300-9 


1205-2 


16<>5 


388 


69 


54-3 


301-9 


1205-5 


1627 


383 


70 


55-3 


302-9 


1205-8 


1648 


378 


71 


56-3 


203-9 


1206-1 


.1670 


373 


72 


57-3 


301-8 


1206*3 


1692 


368 


73 


58 3 


305-7 


1206-6 


1714 


363 



59 



Properties of Saturated Steam- 



\tinved. 



Absolute 

Pressure 

in lb. per 

Sq. In. 


Pressure 
above 
atmo. 

sphere. 


Tempera- 
ture or 
Boiling 
Point in 

Degrees F. 


Total Heat w 
in Thermal VZ 
Units per ' 
lb. of Steam OI 
from 0^ F. 


ight of 1 
bic Foot 
Steam 
in lb. 


Cubic Feet 

of Steam 

from 1 Cubic 

Foot of 

Water at 

62° F. 


74 


59-3 


306-6 


1206-9 


1736 


359 


75 


60-3 


307-5 


1207 


o 


1759 


353 


76 


61-3 


308-4 


1207 


4 


1782 


349 


77 


62-3 


309-3 


1207 


7 


1804 


345 


78 


63-3 


310-2 


1208 





1826 


341 


79 


64 3 


3111 


1208 


3 


1.848 


337 


80 


65-3 


312-0 


1208 


5 


1869 


333 


81 


66-3 


312-8 


1208 


8 


1891 


329 


82 


67-3 


313-6 


1209 


1 


1913 


325 


83 


68 3 


314-5 


1209 


4 


1935 


321 


84 


69-3 


315-3 


1209 


6 


1957 


818 


85 


70-3 


316-1 


1209 


9 


1980 


314 


86 


71-3 


316 9 


1210 


1 


2002 


311 


87 


72-3 


317-8 


1210 


4 


2024 


308 


88 


73 3 


318-6 


1210 


6 


2044 


305 


89 


74-3 


319-4 


1210 


9 


2067 


301 


90 


75-3 


320-2 


1211 


1 


2089 


298 


91 


76-3 


321-0 


1211 


3 


2111 


295 


92 


77-3 


321-7 


1211 


5 


2133 


292 


93 


78-3 


322-5 


1211 


8 


2155 


289 


94 


79 3 


323-3 


1212 





2176 


28H 


95 


80-3 


324-1 


1212 


3 


2198 


283 


96 


81-3 


324-8 


1212 


5 


2219 


281 


97 


82-3 


325-6 


1212 


•8 


2241 


278 


98 


83-3 


326-3 


1213 





2263 


275 


99 


84-3 


327-1 


1213 


•2 


2285 


272 


10O 


85-3 


327-9 


1213 


•4 


■2307 


270 


101 


86-3 


328-5 


1213 


•6 


2329 


267 


102 


87-3 


329-1 


1113 


•8 


2351 


265 


103 


88-3 


329-9 


1214 





2373 


262 


104 


89-3 


330-6 


1214 


2 


2393 


2H0 


105 


90-3 


331-3 


1214 


•4 


2414 


257 


106 


91-3 


331-9 


1214 


6 


2435 


255 


107 


92-3 


332-6 


1214 


8 


•2456 


253 


108 


93-3 


333-3 


1215 


•o 


2477 


251 


109 


94-3 


334-0 


1215 


•3 


•2499 


249 


110 


95-3 


334-6 


1215-5 


2521 


247 



(10 



Properties of Saturated Steam — continued. 



Absolute 


Pressure 


Tempera- 
ture or 


Total Heat 


Weight of 1 


Cubic Feet 
of Steam 


Pressure 
in lb. per 
Sq. In. 


above 
atmo- 
sphere. 


Boiling 

Point in 

Degrees F. 


Units per- 
il}, of Steam 
from ' F. 


Cubic Foot 

of Steam 

in lb. 


from 1 Cubic 

Foot of 

Water at 

62° F. 


11] 


96-3 


335-3 


1215-7 


•2543 


245 


112 


^7-3 


336-0 


1215-9 


•v5(!4 


243 


113 


98-3 


33b' -7 


1216-1 


■2586 


241 


114 


99-3 


337-4 


1216-3 


•2607 


239 


115 


100-3 


338-0 


1216-5 


•2628 


237 


116 


101 3 


338-6 


1216-7 


•2649 


235 


117 


102-3 


339-3 


1216-9 


•2674 


233 


118 


103-3 


339-9 


1217-1 


•2696 


231 


119 


104-3 


340-5 


1217-3 


•2738 


229 


120 


105-3 


341-1 


1217-4 


•2759 


227 


121 


106-3 


341-8 


1217-6 


•2780 


225 


122 


107-3 


342-4 


1217.8 


■2801 


224 


123 


108-3 


343-0 


1218-0 


■ -2822 


222 


124 


109-3 


343-6 


1218-2 


•2845 


221 


125 


110-3 


344-2 


1218-4 


•2867 


219 


12G 


111-3 


344-8 


1218-6 


•2889 


217 


127 


112-3 


345-4 


1 218-8 


•2911 


215 


128 


113-3 


346-0 


1218 9 


•2933 


214 


129 


114-3 


• 346-6 


1219-1 


•2955 


212 


130 


115-3 


347-2 


1219-3 


•2977 


211 


131 


116-3 


347-8 


1219-5 


•2999 


209 


132 


117-3 


348-3 


1219-6 


•302O 


208 


133 


llS-M 


348-9 


1*19 8 


•3040 


206 


134 


119-3 


349-5 


1220-0 


•3060 


205 


135 


120 3 


350-1 


1220-2 


•3080 


203 


136 


121-3 


350-6 


1220-3 


•3101 


k02 


137 


122-3 


351-2 


1220-5 


•3121 


200 


138 


123-3 


351-8 


1*20-7 


3142 


199 


139 


124-3 


352-4 


1220-9 


•3163 


198 


MO 


125-3 


352-9 


1221-0 


•3184 


197 


141 


1263 


3535 


1221-2 


•3206 


195 


142 


127-3 


354-0 


1221-4 


•3228 


194 


143 


128-3 


354-5 


1221-6 


•3250 


193 


144 


J 29-3 


355-0 


1*21-7 


3273 


192 


145 


130-3 


355-6 


1221-9 


•3294 


190 


146 


131-3 


356-1 


1222-0 


•3315 


189 


147 


132-3 


356-7 


1222-2 


•3336 


188 



6 1 



Properties 


oe Saturated Steam— continued. 


Absolute 

Pressure 

in lb. per 

Sq. In. 


Pressure 
above 
atmo- 
sphere. 


Tempera- 
ture or 
Boiling 
Point in 
Degrees F. 


Total Heat 
in Thermal 
Units per 
lb. of Steam 
from <.° F. 


Weight of 1 

Cubic Foot 

of Steam 

in lb. 


Cubic Feet 

of Steam 

from 1 Cubic 

Foot of 

Water at 

62 J F. 


148 


133'3 


857-2 


1222-3 


•3357 


187 


149 


134-3 


357-8 


1222-5 


•3877 


186 


150 


135-3 


358-3 


1222-7 


•3397 


184 


155 


140-3 


361-0 


1223-5 


•3500 


179 


lttO 


145-3 


363-4 


1224-2 


•3607 


174 


165 


150-3 


366-0 


1224-9 


•3714 


169 


170 


155-3 


368-2 


1225-7 


•3821 


164 


175 


160-3 


870-8 


1226-4 


•3928 


159 


180 


165-3 


372 9 


1227-1 


•4035 


155 


185 


170-3 


3 7ft -3 


1227-8 


•4142 


151 


190 


175-3 


877-5 


1228-5 


•4250 


148 


195 


1803 


879-7 


L229-2 


•4357 


144 


200 


185-3 


381-7 


1229-8 


•4464 


141 


210 


195 3 


3S6-0 


1231-1 


•4668 


135 


220 


205-3 


389-9 


1232-3 


•4872 


129 


230 


215-3 


393-8 


1233-5 


•5072 


123 



Heat can best be conveyed from one point of a factory to 
another by means of steam. To do so economically the steam 
pipes should be "well arranged and protected by non-radiating 
felt, or other like substance, and be superheated. The various 
operations of heating, boiling, and drying are carried out in 
paper mills by means of steam, and the following modes of 
calculating the quantity of steam required in the different 
processes of manufacture are based upon well-known scientific 
methods and data. 

Heating liquids, <&c, with steam: — When steam con- 
denses to water of temperature t, the British thermal units 
which 1 lb. of it will give out is represented by the equation 
T — t = x; in which T represents the total units of heat 
reckoned from 0° Fab.., which 1 lb. of the steam contains 
(see table, page 40), and x the total thermal units made avail- 
able for heating. Thus, 1 lb. of steam at 70 lbs. pressure above 
atmosphere (= 85 lbs. pressure in col. 1 of the table, page 42) 
contains 1,209-9 British thermal units, and if it be condensed 
to water of 120° Fall, (t in the formula), the heat rendered 
available for heating is equal to 1,209-9 — 120 = 1,089 "9 units. 



62 

A liquid may be heated by injecting steam into it, or by 
passing steam through a coil immersed in it, or by means of 
a steam jacketed pan. The simplest case occurring in paper 
mills is heating water or other liquids, &c, in metal tanks or 
boilers, and the steam used to raise the temperature of the 
vessel and its contents may be ascertained from the following 
formula : — 

(w s + ws ' ) (t i — 1 1 ) 
1- = S. 

in which S — lbs. of steam required. 

T = British thermal units contained in 1 lb. of 

steam at the prevailing pressure. 
tf = The final temperature in °Fah. to which the 
water or other definite liquid has to be heated. 
t • = The temperature in °Fah. or' the water or liquid 

before heating. 
to = The weight in lbs. of the water or liquid. 
s — The specific heat of water or other liquid. 
m — Weight in lbs. of the metal vessel. 
s 1 — The specific heat of the metal of which the 
vessel is composed. 

Example: — A wrought-iron vessel, weighing 10 cwts. 
(1,120 lbs.), contained 300 gallons of water (3,003 lbs.) at a 
temperature of 72° Fah. (t^ ), and it was desired to heat the 

same to 184° Fah. by injecting steam of 70 lbs. pressure above 
atmosphere into it." In this case w = 3.000 lbs. ; s = 1*00 ; 
in = 1,120; s 1 = 0-113; T = 1,209-9; t f = 184°, and t { 

= 72°. Substituting these values in the above formula, we 
have 

(3,000 X 1-00 + 1,120 X 0*113) (184 — 72) 

= 341-3. 

1,209-9 — 184. 

Or, in other words, 341-3 lbs. of the steam were required to raise 
the vessel and water from 72° Fah. to 184° Fah., or through 
112 degrees. 

Instances in which liquids together with solids, in different 
proportions, and possessing different specific heat values, are 
to be heated are frequently met with, as in the heating of a 
pocher of pulp while bleaching ; or in digesting esparto, straw 
or wood in caustic soda lyes ; or " bisulphite " of lime, soda, 
or magnesia. The weights of the various solids and liquids 
composing the charge, and that part of the apparatus which 
must be heated, may be represented by iv, w', w", w'" ', . . &c., 



63 

and their respective specific heat values by .<?, s', s", a'", .... 
and a general formula may be written applicable to ail cases in 
which simple heating by injected steam takes place, viz. : — 

O s + w' s' + w" s" + w"' s"' + . . . .)(t r — t- ) 

1 L_ = s. 

T-t f 

As examples of the application of this formula to three 
different but commonly occurring cases in paper mill work we 
give the following : — 

Hot Bleaching: — A cast-iron pocher, 30 feet long x 
12 feet broad x 4 feet 6 inches deep, of a total calculated 
capacity of 1,316 cubic feet contained 1,170 cubic feet of a 
mixture of pulp and water (very weak bleach liquor). ( )ne 
cubic foot of the mixture of pulp and water contained 1-833 lbs. 
of air-dry pulp (10% water), or the total quantity of air-dry 
pulp in the pocher was 2,144 lbs. (a/). The weight of water 
associated with it was nearly 71,000 lbs. (w) ; the cast-iron 
pocher itself weighed nearly 10 tons = 22,400 lbs. (w"). 
The initial temperature of pulp, water, and pocher was 
54° Fah. (t i ), and this was to be heated to 120° Fah. (^ ) or 

through 66° Fah. with steam of 85 pressure per square inch 
above atmospnere (T). The specific heat values of cellulose 
= 0-55, of water 1-00, and of cast-iron 0-130. Substituting 
these values in the above formula, we have — 

(71,000 X 1-00 + 2,141 x 0-55 + 22,400 X 0'13)(120 - 54) 

= 4,532 = S. 

1,213-4—120 

Or, 4,532 lbs. of steam were required to perform the above 
work. Assuming one ton of air-dry pulp to yield one ton of 
piper, the amount of steam required for hot bleaching in the 
above case was 4,735 lbs. (nearly). 

Digesiing Esparto in Vomiting Boilers. 

Weight of caustic lye 

= 15,751 lbs. = iv ; specific heat of caustic lye = 0*96 = s. 

Weight of esparto 

= 5,600 lbs. = iv'-, specific heat of esparto = 0*60 = s' 

Weight of wrought-iron boiler 

= 11,200 lbs. = iv" ; specific heat of wrought iron = 0*113 = s" 
Initial temperature ^-=120° Fah., final temperature t f 

= 259-3° Fah., equal to 20 lbs. pressure per square inch above 
atmosphere. The pressure of steam used for heating was 90 lbs. 
above atmosphere, and 1 lb. of it contained 1214-4 B.T. units, 



64 

T in the formula. We have therefore by substitution as in 
the previous case — 

(15-, 751 x 0-96+5,600 X 0-60+11,200 X 0-113) (259 -3-120) 

■ ; = 2,880. 

1,2144- 259-3 

Or, S equals 2,880 lhs. of steam required to heat the esparto 
boiler and its contents from 120° Fah. to a temperature of 
258-3° Fah. 

Digesting Straw in Revolving Boilers. 

Weight of caustic lye 

= 16,926 lbs. = w\ specific heat of caustic lye = 0*96 = s. 

Weight of straw 

= 4,480 lbs. = w'\ specific heat of straw = 0*60 = s'. 

Weight of wrought-iron boiler 

== 15,680 lb?. = w" '; specific heat of wrought-iron =0-113 = s". 

Initial temperature t- = 110° Fah., final temperature t f 

= 287-1° Fah., equal to 40 lbs. of steam pressure per square 
inch above atmosphere. The pressure of steam used for heating 
was 90 lbs. above atmosphere, and 1 lb. of it contained 
1,214-4 B.T. units, T in the formula. We have therefore by 
substitution, as above — 

(16,926 X 0-96+4,480 x 0-60 + 15,680 x 0-113) (2871-110) 

=3,955. 

" 1.214-4 — 287-1 

Or, S in this case equals 3,955 lbs. of steam required to heat 
the boiler and its contents from 110° Fah. to 287T° Fah. 



Digesting Wood in Caustic Soda Lye. 

In this case the item of moisture in the wood chips should 
be taken into account, as it varies from 15 to 40 per cent., 
according to circumstances of climate. &c. Instead of adding 
the quantity of water in the wood to the weight of the caustic 
lye, it is best to treat it as a separate item in the formula, w' ' 
representing its weight in lbs. and &'" the specific heat of 
water. The particulars of the " charge," &c, and the conditions 
of boiling are represented by the following: — 

Weight of wood chips (dried at 212° Fah.) 
4,892 lbs. = w ; specific heat of wood =0-55 = s 

Weight of caustic lye (5-0 per cent. Na 2 O) 
21,400 lbs. = w' ; specific heat of caustic lye =0'94 = s' 



65 

Weight of wrought-iron digester 

13,440 lbs. = w" ; specific heat of wrought-iron =0-113 = s" 
Weight of water in wood chips 

1,380 lbs. = w'" ; specific heat of water =1 00 = s'" 

Initial temperature t- =150° Fah., final temperature if — 

350-1° Fah., equal to a pressure of 120 lbs. per square inch 
above atmosphere. The pressure of steam used for heating 
was 130 lbs. per square inch above atmosphere, and therefore 
T = 1221-9 B.T. units. Again, by substitution as before, 
we have — 

(4,892x0-55+21, 400x0-94+13,440x0-118+ 1,38(1x1-00) (350-1-150) 

1,221-9-350-1 ~ °' yuu - 

Or S equals 5,900 lbs. of steam, the amount required to heat 
the digester and its contents to maximum temperature or 
pressure. 

N.B — In all the foregoing cases the steam is injected direct 
into the contents of the digester, and the formula is applicable 
only to such cases. 

The formula requires alteration when the digester and its 
contents are heated by means of a steam jacket or steam coil. 
Were the heating to take place by very gradual and equal 

t i Jrt f n 
increments of heat, then the mean temperature ^- would 

represent the average temperature of the condensed water. 
As a matter of fact, however, the ejected water is always 
higher than the contents of the digester, especially when a steam 
jacket is used. The difference is not so much with steam 
coils. The divisor T — t ^ in the above general formula should 



+*/ 



be changed to T ^- in each case, but for the reason 

stated, it is best to take periodic observations of the tem- 
perature of the condensed water flowing from the coil or 

jacket, and use this average temperature t Q instead of . -L. m 

In all cases, therefore, in which heating by steam coil or 
jacket takes place the following formula is applicable, viz. : — 
(w s -j- iu' s' + w" t," + w'" s'" + . . . ) (t» — t • \ 



= S. 



T—t 

a 



in which t a is the average observed temperature of the 

condensed water passing away from the coils or jacket, the 
other factors in the formula having the same significance as 
before. 



60 

Digesting Wood in Steam Jacketed Boilers (Bisul- 
phite process). — As an example of the application of this 
formula, a steam jacketed, lead lined, sulphite digester, in 
which wood pulp was being prepared, was heated with steam 
of 90 lbs. pressure per square inch above atmosphere, the 
weight of digester and its " charge," &c, being as follows : — 

Weight of wood chips dried at 212° Fab. 

4,655 lbs. = w ; specific heat of wood — 0-55 =: s 

Weight of bisulphite liquor 

24,800 lbs. — id' ; specific heat of liquor = 0*98 — s' 

Weight of water in the wood 

1,482 lbs. = iv" ; specific heat of water ~ 1-00 = s" 

Weight of wrought-iron digester 
29,120 lbs. = w'" ; sj>ecific heat of wrought iron = 0'113:zs"' 

Weight of lead lining 

6,496 lbs. = iv"" ; specific heat of lead = 0-0314 = s"" 

Initial temperature t- zz 70° Fah., final temperature t. zz 

278° Fah. The average temperature of condensed water from 
the jacket, having due regard to quantity in equal intervals of 
time, was 209° Fah. = t a . T = 1,214-4 B.T. units, equivalent 

to 90 lbs. steam pressure above atmosphere. By substitution, 
we have :— 

(4,655 X 0-55 + 24,800 X 0"98 + 1,482 x TOO + 29,120x0-113+ 6,496x0*0314) 

. ( 278 - 7 °) =6,587 

1,214-4—209 

Or S equals 6,587 lbs., the amount of steam required to heat 
the digester and its contents to maximum temperature 
278° Fah. 

Note. — As this digester yielded 23^ cwts. of air-dry 

cellulose per charge, the steam required per ton was ' 

23*5 
or 5,606 lbs. (nearly). 

As above indicated, careful observations of the temperature 
and volume of the condensed water from the jacket should be 
made at equal intervals of time throughout the cooking, but 
having regard to the difficulties of making these observations 
accurately, the simplest mode of ascertaining the steam used 
is to measure the condensed water. A series of observations 
made in this way with digesters of the jacketed type, protected 
with non-radiating cement, &c, and yielding 23^ cwt of air- 
dry pulp, gave an average of 8,556 lbs. of steam for heating per 
charge or 6,587 lbs. steam per ton of air-dry cellulose. This 
amount includes that condensed through loss of heat by 



67 

radiation from the sides of the digester, and also the amount 
of steam blown off from the mcerior of the digester during 
the cooking operation. The difference between that found 
by calculation and by measurement — viz., 8,556 — 6,587—1,960 
— represents these two losses plus errors of observation, &c. 
This difference is equivalent to 23-0 per cent, of the total steam 
used. 

No allowance has been made in these formulas for loss of 
heat by radiation from the sides of the digester or boiler, and 
therefore this loss should be ascertained with a water calori- 
meter, and the amount added to the figure obtained by 
calculation. The moisture in the steam in those works, where 
superheating is absent, may also be allowed for. Although 
there is no definite evidence to show that heat is generated or 
absorbed in the chemical action going on inside the digester 
between the resolving fluid and the raw fibrous stock, yet it is 
perhaps reasonable to infer that some such absorption or 
generation of heat does take place in specific cases, but the 
amount is small compared with that required to raise the 
digester and contents to maximum temperature, and may 
therefore be neglected. 



Drying Pulp or Paper. 

The steam required to dry one ton of pulp on the machine 
may be ascertained by the following formula : — 

x{T-t i ) + ivs{t f -t i ) 

S = 

T 1 - t.- 

in which S = lbs. of steam required. 

x — Weight of water in lbs. which has to be evapo- 
rated for each ton of air-dry cellulose made. 
w = Weight of air-dry cellulose (= 2,240 lbs.), 
s = Specific heat of air-dry cellulose. 
t- = The initial temperature of pulp and water 

running on to the wire. 
t f = The final or maximum temperature tJ which 

the pulp is heated on the drying cylinders. 
T = The total heat units contained in 1 lb. of steam 
at 212° Fah. under atmospheric pressure. 
T 1 = The total heat units contained in 1 lb, of steam 
at the pressure prevailing within the drying 
cylinders 

x is ascertained by estimating the water in pulp after passing 
the press rolls, and again after having passed over the drying 



68 

cylinders. B}' a simple calculation the water to be evaporated 
by the drying cylinders can be obtained. For well-known 
reasons t f cannot very well exceed 212° Fan. 

Example:— x = 3,065 lbs. w = 2,240- s = 0-55. 
t i = 59° Fah. * * = 240° Fah. 

T = 1,178 and T 1 = 1,190. 

By substitution we have: — 

3,065 (1,178 - 59) + 2,240 x 0-55 (240 - 59) 



1,190-240. 



3,845 = S. 



Or, the amount of steam required to dry one ton of cellulose. 
The foregoing is the actual work done on a pulp drying 
machine. 

The water condensed inside the drying cylinders of the 
machine gave by measurement 5,080 lbs. per ton of air-dry 
pulp, and deducting from this the 3,845 lbs. found by calcula- 
tion, leaves 1,235 lbs., representing loss of heat by radiation, 
moisture in steam, &c. 

The following (Wockenblatt No. 43, 1901) is an example 
from a Continental News Mill : — 

Paper was composed of 80 per cent, ground wood and 

20 per cent, of wood cellulose. 
Speed of paper machine = 80 metres (262^ feet) per minute 

and an hourly production of 475 kilos. (1,045 lbs.) 

paper. 
The condensed water from the drying cylinders, which is 

a direct measure of the steam required per hour, was 

593 kilos. (1,304-6 lbs.). 

(. •. 100 kilos, of paper required 125 kilos, of steam.) 
Note. — Many other tests gave only slight variations from 
the above. 



69 

CHAPTER III. 

RAW FIBROUS STOCK. 

COTTON AND LINEN RAGS. 

Cotton and linen rags are usually boiled in weak milk-of- 
lime to which a small quantity of soda is sometimes added. 
The volume of the milk-of-lime used is carefully regulated 
and should be such that the rags are always covered or 
immersed in the liquid during the boiling. If the volume of 
liquor taken is insufficient for this purpose, the rags are 
exposed to the action of dry steam, which, in presence of free 
alkali or lime, has a tendency to " rot ll or "tender" the 
fibres and also to discolour them. The steam pressure (or 
temperature) and the proportion of dry soda or lime, or both, 
together with the time required, all vary with the kind of 
rags operated upon. Old white cotton or linen rags do not 
require such a drastic treatment as new cotton or linen rags. 
The former having been washed and scoured many times 
before they reach the papermaker are partly free from foreign 
matter, and the fibres themselves are softened. New rags, 
on the other hand, are impregnated with " size " and loadings 
used in the preparation of the cloth and also retain the original 
impurities existing in the raw fibre (see page 128), the bulk 
of which must be removed prior to their conversion into paper. 
In the boiling and cleansing process to which new rags are 
subjected, the fibres are softened. 

Speaking broadly, rag stock suitable for papermaking may 
be roughly divided into two great classes, namely — cotton 
and linen. These, again, may be subdivided into old and 
new cotton and old and new linen, the exact line of demarca- 
tion between what is old and new in both cases not being well 
defined. The skill of the papermaker in this department 
of the manufacture consists largely in treating these various 
grades, both chemically and mechanically, in the process of 
making half-stock from them, and in blending them together 
so as to form a sheet of paper in accordance with his require- 
ments. This requires much exj)erience, and his success 
depends largely upon the adequate knowledge which he 
possesses of the various properties of the different grades of 
old and new cotton and old and new linen rags at his 
disposal, with particular reference to their strength, softness, 
and purity. These have to be graded by careful sorting, then 
cut, boiled with soda or lime or both under pressure to remove 
foreign matters, and finally washed and broken in in the 
breaker and bleached. The breaking in is carried out so 
that the whole texture of the rag is completely destroyed, 
and the fibres themselves partly beaten to that degree of fineness 
required for the beating engine. These operations involve 
considerable losses, which have been classified as follows : — 



70 



TREATMENT OF RAGS. 




Table showing Losses on Raw Material during the 


various operations. 






The percentage of moisture 


in rags varies from 3 to 6 %. 










(J. W. Wymt.) 




6 


b'a 


fab 


b'r, 


fee g. 


.Ji 




! 

o 
3 


a 

o 

in 


.5 
o 


'8 
PQ 


£ «S rt 

M 5 


Total 
Exclud 
Moistu 




% 


0/ 


0/ 
/0 


0/ 

/o 


% 


% 


English New Pieces ... 


3 


0-5 


1-0 


3-0 


12-5 


15-15 


French ,, ,, 


3 


0-5 


1-2 


7-3 


13-2 


19-60 


German ,, ,, 


3 


0-5 


1-2 


11-8 


11-6 


22-03 


No. 1 Cotton 


3 


0-9 


2-0 


3-0 


12-4 


15-04 


2 

55 ^ 55 




4 


1-2 


2 ; 5 


7-94 


14-8 


21-60 


55 3 ,, 




4 


1-5 


3-8 


11-16 


13-6 


23-26 


„ 4 „ 




5 


2-0 


4-0 


14-3 


17-4 


29-27 


New Soft Tabs. 




4 


0-5 


1-0 


3-0 


8-4 


11-14 


Best White „ 




4 


1-0 


4-0 


8-6 


16-6 


23-78 


Grey Tabs. ... 


... 


4 


0-8 


2-5 


15-1 


9-8 


23-46 


Unbleached Cotton .. 


4 


0-8 


2-0 


12-28 


13-4 


24-05 


White Moleskins 


4 


0-8 


2-0 


11-00 


8-9 


18-99 


Drab „ 


4 


1-0 


2-0 


13-00 


10-1 


21-79 


Jean Cuttings 


4 


1-0 


2-0 


17-40 


6-1 


22-48 


Green Cords 


5 


1-0 


2-5 


21-30 


8-0 


27-64 


Old Blue Cotton 


5 


1-5 


3-8 


14-40 


9-2 


22-32 


Shirtings 


4 


0-5 


2-6 


11-60 


12-4 


22-59 


S. P. F. F. F. Linen .. 


4 


0-8 


2-0 


8-50 


11-8 


19-38 


S.P.F. F. 


5 


1-3 


2-4 


11-10 


12-8 


22-51 


S.P.F. 


6 


1-8 


2-7 


17-36 


19-6 


33-62 


No. 1 Linen 


4 


0-5 


2-0 


6-8 


7-4 


13-77 


5, 2 „ ... 


5 


0-8 


2-4 


14-5 


8-2 


21-54 


„ 3 „ 


6 


1-0 


2-7 


19-15 


9-8 


27-11 


,, 1 Russian Linen ... 


6 


1-5 


2-4 


18-7 


10-0 


26-90 


55 4 „ „ ... 


6 


3-0 


5-0 


30-0 


20-7 


44-53 


Linen Duck Clippings 


4 


0-5 


2-0 


15-4 


9-6 


23-58 


,, Threads 


4 


0-5 


2-0 


12-5 


12-6 


23-55 


New Blue Linens 


4 


0-8 


2-0 


15-1 


13-9 


26-90 


Unbleached Linen 


4 


0-5 


2-4 


19-2 


16-0 


32-14 



71 



Mr. Clayton Beadle has also determined the loss of weight 
in boiling and bleaching cotton rags, with the following 
results : — 

Percentage loss on 
Boiling. Bleaching. 



Best new cotton pieces 


8 71 


3-29 


Low quality cotton 


pieces 


.. 12-20 


7-70 


Cotton rags, No. 1 




5 80 


6-20 


„ No. 2 




5-70 


G-90 


„ No. 3 




.. 12-50 


4 30 


„ No. 4 




.. 13 30 


13-70 


New unbleached cotton cuttings 


.. 23-50 


13 00 



JUTE. 

Tt is scarcely possible to prepare a pure white pulp from 
jute owing to the tannin-like bodies distributed throughout 
the mass of the fibre (see page 129). Generally the jute cut- 
tings are boiled in lime and soda according to the conditions 
named below, and it is said if the jute is treated first in this 
way, then partly bleached with hypochlorites and again 
given a second boiling in weak caustic soda lye alone, and 
after washing, finally bleached with additional hypochlorite, 
the resulting pulp appioaches a good white colour. Silicate 
of soda has been recommended as a substitute for the caustic 
soda in the second boiling. 

The following proportions of lime, &c, are recommended 
for the treatment of this fibre. 



Boiling. — 

100 parts require — 

Lime 

Caustic Soda (as Na 2 O) 
Pressure per square inch 
Temperature ... 
Hours under pressure... 



New fine Coarse old 

quality quality 

Jute. Jute. 



20 25 
— 4 

30 60 

248° Fah. 290° Fah. 
10 8 



Losses in the treatment in mill, &c. 



Moisture 


°/ 


10 °/ 


Dusting 


2 % 


2-5 °/ 


Cutting 


2-5 °/ 


2-5 °/ 


Dressing- 


8-6 % 


5-0 °/ Q 


Boiling and Washing 


16-0 °/ 


20-0 °/ 


Breaking 


2-5°/, 


3-0°/ o 


1st Bleaching 


10-0 °/ 


8-0 °/ 


2nd „ 


5-0 °/ 


4-0 % 


Totals ... 


47-5 °/ 


55-0 °/ 




— — — 


— — 


ESPARTO. 







The treatment of esparto by the soda method is typical 
of the preparation of paper pulp from nearly all fibre- yielding 
plants, such as bamboo, straw, wood, &c. The isolation of 
the cellulose is brought about by digesting the prepared plant 
in an alkaline solution, having for its base caustic soda, at 
variable temperatures, and under variable lengths of time. 
The chemical reaction which takes place during this digesting 
process is not known, that is to say, has not been isolated, 
because of the complicated character of the encrusting sub- 
stances surrounding the fibre in the plant. The caustic soda 
in aqueous solution forms soluble compounds with these 
encrusting bodies and dissolves any silica which forms a part 
of the plant's structure, so that by subsequent draining, 
washing and bleaching, the liberated cellulose is obtained 
in a comparatively pure state. Cellulose, from whatever 
source it is obtained, is, however, soluble in aqueous solutions 
of caustic soda. Moreover, the solvent action of the caustic 
is accelerated by heat and by the length of time (within limits) 
in which the two bodies are heated together. It is therefore 
apparent that if the maximum yield of cellulose is desired 
when using this method, due regard must be paid to the laws 
regulating the yield. These laws may be expressed thus : 
The yield of cellulose obtained from any plant by the caustic 
soda method depends upon (1st) the proportion of caustic 
soda (Na HO) used per unit weight of plant, (2nd) the tem- 
perature employed, and (3rd) the length of time the digesting 
operation is continued. If any one of these conditions be 
alte ed and the other two kept constant, the yield varies 
inversely as the altered condition. Thus in the case of esparto, 
the author performed a series of experiments in which the 
proportion of caustic to unit weight of esparto was varied, 
whilst the temperature and duration of the time of digesting 
were both kept constant, with the following results ; — 



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74 

Note. — Tho different trials were made in wr ought-iron 
tubes fitted with screw caps, all three being heated together 
in an oil bath for three hours at a temperature of 302° Fah. 
(55 lbs. above atmosphere). 

These experiments clearly show the influence of caustic 
soda on the yield of cellulose, and also that the amount of 
bleaching powder (or chlorine) required to bleach the fibre thus 
prepared varies directly with the yield. The same holds good 
if the proportion of caustic soda to esparto and the time of 
digesting be kept constant, whilst the temperature is varied, 
namely, the lower the temperature the greater the yield. 
So also, when the proportion of caustic soda and temperature 
are both kept constant and the time varied, the yield decreases, 
as the time of digesting is prolonged ; or, the yield varies 
inversely with the time. A long series of tests made by the 
author with spruce wood and other plants confirm the fore- 
gomg. Composition of Espartos. (Miiller.) 





Spanish. 


African. 


Cellulose 


... 48-28% 


45-08% 


Fat and wax 


... 2-07% 


2-62% 


Aqueous extract ... 


... 10-19% 


9'81% 


Pectous substances 


... 26-39% 


29*30% 


Water 


... 9-38% 


8-80% 


Ash 


... 3-72% 


3-67% 



100-00 100-00 

The percentage of available cellulose obtained in manu- 
facturing practice never corresponds to that shown by the 
above analysis. It varies with the conditions of manufacture 
as outlined above, and with the quality of the grass itself. 
The coarse, unmatured plant requires more soda than the 
matured. The best results are obtained when the time and 
temperature (or pressure) of digesting are kept constant, and 
the minimum proportion of soda used in accordance with the 
nature of the grass operated upon and the quality of the 
pulp required. Setting aside the amount of soda which 
combines with the silica in the plant to form a silicate, the 
amount of organic extractive matter removed by the caustic, 
and the proportion of the latter used per 100 parts of the 
former in ordinary manufacturing practice as set forth in the 
following table is substantially true, viz. 

Total esparto used per charge = 

Less — 

9% water = 

40% yield oven dry fibre = 

3% ash = 



Total soluble organic matter per charge 



Cwts. 


Lbs. 


52 


= 5,824 


Lbs. 




524-1 




2,329-6 




1747 







3,028-4 


;e ... 


= 2,795*6 



75 

Soda used, reckoned as 58% ash, 18 lbs. per cwt. 

grass = 936'0 

2795-6 

= 2 "98 lbs. organic matter are associated with one 

936 

pound recovered ash in the black lye. This organic matter/ 
when dry, is very inflammable, and of high calorific value. 
The heat evolved from its combustion is almost sufficient to 
evaporate the water, generally associated with it in the black 
lye (and washings) provided efficient evaporating and calcining 
apparatus is used. 

The operations involved in the manufacture of esparto pulp 
consist of (1st) cleaning by means of a willow, by which soil 
and dust are removed, and by hand-picking to separate the 
roots ; (2nd) boiling in caustic soda under pressure ; and 
(3rd) washing, breaking, screening, and bleaching. The 
bleached fibre is usually run off as a thick sheet of pulp on a 
" Press Pate " machine for convenience of handling. The 
loss in weight during the cleaning process varies from 1 to 6 
per cent, of the weight of grass treated. The dust consists 
of sand and other mineral matter and of fat or wax. An 
analysis of the fine dust collected from the willow gave organic 
matter (by ignition), 64 '6 per cent. ; water (at 212), 6*2 per 
cent. ; and mineral matter, 29 '2 per cent. Fully 90 per 
tent, of this organic matter consisted of fat or wax. The 
mineral left after ignition was composed of silica, 56*43 per 
cent.; carbonate of lime,- 19*17 per cent.; carbonate of 
magnesia, 3*76 per cent. ; and alumina, 20*57 per cent. 
The silicious substance which forms the outer coat of the grass 
is not removed during dusting, the greater part of the silica 
in the dust being simply sand derived from the soil. The 
grass after cleansing contains about 3*5 per cent, ash, the 
greater part of which consists of silica. It is this silica which 
contaminates the soda lyes. Assuming that the silica forms 
Na 3 Si 3 ,with the Na 3 O, 112 lbs. of Si 3 will accordingly 
combine with 228 lbs. of Na 3 to form silicate of soda. 
Silicate of soda has practically no influence in the boiling 
operation. 

The manufacturing conditions for boiling esparto, i.e., the 
steam pressure or temperature, the proportionate weight of 
caustic soda to grass, and the length of time the charge is 
kept under pressure, vary almost in every factory. Some 
manufacturers employ a high pressure with a moderate excess 
of caustic, and thus reduce the time for digesting, and obtain 
the maximum yield of cellulose, 



7<; 



The following figures are taken from actual practice, and 
represent fairly good work : — 



Weight of charge ... ... 

Gallons of Caustic Lye per charge 

Lbs. of 60 % Caustic Soda per gallon of 

Lye 

Total lbs. of dry 60 % Caustic Soda per 

charge 
Lbs. of 60 % Caustic Soda per cwt. of 

Esparto 
Steam pressure maximum ... 
Time under pressure in hours 
Yield of unbleached air-dry pulp (10 % 

water) 



Variety of Esparto. 


Spanish. 


Tripoli. 


50 cwts. 
1,570 


50 cwts 
1,570 


0-509 


0-649 


900 


1,020 


18 
20 


20-4 

20 

3 



44/45$ 



41/42$ 



Notes. — The caustic lye above was partly from recovered ash 
and partly from cream caustic soda. The above volume of 
lye, and the soda it contained, were in both cases accurately 
measured, the latter by chemical test. 

The capacity of the esparto boiler in use was 540 cubic 
feet (8 ft. 9 in. diameter by 9 ft. high), and of the usual 
vomiting type. The space within the boiler, occupied by 
50 cwts. of the grass after it was cooked and drained, was 
300 cubic feet. 

The yield of fibre from espartos is generally reckoned on 
the amount of paper they produce. On an average 100 
parls of grass will yield from 43 to 50 parts finished paper, 
depending upon the class and composition of the paper, and 
general equipment of the paper mill, with regard to 
economical working. 

For purposes of comparison it is best to ascertain the yield 
from espartos by a uniform and exact method, expressing the 
results in terms of air-dry fibre (10 per cent, of water) on 
100 parts of dry grass (dried at 212° Fah.). This can be done 
by heating in an oil bath for three hours or so a weighed quan- 
tity of the dried grass (25 grammes) with proportionate 
quantity of a 2 per cent, solution of caustic soda in a wrought- 
iron cylinder fitted with a screw cap, at a temperature or 



77 

pressure corresponding to the practice prevailing in the 
boiling room of the mill. By careful washing, bleaching, and 
drying the pulp, strictly comparable results are obtained. 
This method affords a basis upon which the pulp yielding 
qualities of all fibrous plants can be compared almost without 
exception. In this way the following figures were obtained, 
which show the difference in yield between espartos of different 
origin, and between matured and unmatured espartos of the 
same origin. 





Matured 


Unmatured 






(Yellow). 


(Green). 


Difference. 


Spanish ... 


.. 46'4% 


— 


— 


Oran 


.. 44'4o/ 


41'0% 


3-4% 


Tripoli (fair average) . 


■• 42-5% 


39-3% 


3-2% 



Note. — The distinguishing features of the matured and 
unmatured blades of grass in these trials were very marked ; 
the unmatured being of a deep green colour, whilst the 
matured was a bright yellow. 



STRAW. 

Kinds of straw employed — barley, oat, wheat, and rye. 

Barley straw yields a short, very soft fibre of low felting 
power Knots and husks are soft, and straw is easily digested. 

Oat straw is usually harder, and knots and husks are more 
difficult to digest. Fibres are comparatively long, soft, and of 
medium felting power. 

Wheat and rye straws are somewhat closely allied to one 
another, they both yield long fibres of good felting power. 
Rye straw yields excellent cellulose. 

Manufacturing operations : — The straw is first of all freed 
from weeds by hand picking, then dusted and cut by machinery 
into chaff | inch to 1^ inch long. Both the picking and 
dusting should be done thoroughly to ensure the product being 
clean. The cut straw is then digested in caustic soda lye in 
rotary digesters. 



78 

The following figures represent the proportion of lye and 
straw and other conditions of the digester charge : — 

Weight of straw (mixture of oat and wheat). 

4,480 lbs. (40 cwts.) 

Gallons of caustic lye ... ... 1,610 ,, 

Hours under steam pressure ... 4 

Steam pressure above atmosphere 60 lbs. per sq. in. 

Maximum temperature ... ... 307° Fah. 

Composition of above caustic lye : 

Twaddell 10|° 

Total weight in lbs 16,945 

Percentage by volume of Na 2 O (soda) 3*249 

,, ,, ,, 60% caustic soda 5 '4 16 

Total 60$ caustic soda in lbs. ... 872 

Lbs. of 60% caustic used per 

1 cwt. of straw = 21 8 

These figures are from actual practice. 

The caustic lye was made partly from recovered ash. 

An average of equal quantities of barley, oat, wheat, and 
rye straws will yield 40 to 41 per cent, of air-dry bleached 
cellulose. The bleaching powder required to bleach one ton 
of straw cellulose is from 3 cwts. 2 qrs. 10 lbs. to 4 cwts. 
dry 35 per cent, bleach. This varies, however, with the pro- 
portion of caustic to straw and temperature used for digesting, 
as also the method of bleaching. 

Barley straw requires 20 per cent, less caustic soda than oat, 
wheat, or rye. The amount of digester capacity required per 
ton of bleached air-dry straw pulp per week varies from 120 
to 150 cubic feet. The mechanical power required in straw 
pulp factories is about 3 to 3^ I.H.P. per ton of air-dry pulp 
made per week. 



79 



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80 

W. Roth's table, showing the yield, &c, of air-dry cellulose 
from straw by soda process. — P. Zeitung, No. 75, 1890. 





1,000 Kilos, of Straw 




100 parts of Air-dry 




required. 


1,000 


Pulp required. 


Situation of Works. 




Kilos, 
of 




A 






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225 


160 


105 


450 


50-0 


35-5 


23-3 


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225 


160 


72 


400 


56-25 


400 


18-0 


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240 


150 


85 


435 


55-1 


34-4 


19-5 


Bohemia 


200 


160 


175 


500 


40-0 


320 35-0 

i 



Note. — From these results it is obvious that the yield of 
air-dry pulp from straw varies indirectly with the amount of 
caustic soda used for digesting, and that the bleaching powder 
required to bleach the pulp increases directly with the percent- 
age yield obtained from the raw plant. 



81 



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3 .3 



BAMBOO. 

Bamboo, like esparto, was first introduced as a fibre- 
yielding plant by the late Mr. Routledge, who suggested it 
as an ally to esparto. It is not so easily reduced as esparto 
by either the soda or sulphite processes, but yields a fibre 
strong and flexible, possessing good felting properties. It 
bulks well and can be treated in the beater with ease to yield 
a close sheet of paper. The plant itself is very abundant, 
of rapid growth, and comparatively cheap. It belongs to the 
same botanical order as straw. Length of fibre is 0-354 
inches. Diameter = 0-00063 of an inch. The fibres are fine, 
regular, and smooth ; walls uniform, and central canal small. 
They are surrounded by much intercellular matter, the bulk 
of which can be removed by washing. The author has 
submitted various kinds of bamboo cane to both the soda and 
sulphite treatment, with the following results : — 

Soda Process. — The cane contained 1-62 per cent, of ash» 
of the following composition : 51-25 per cent. Si 3 , 9-25 per 
cent. Ca C0 3 , and 6-07 per cent. MgC0 3 . It was crushed 
before placing in the digester — 

Weight of bamboo per charge ... ... 52 cwts. 

Volume of C. soda per charge ... ... 1,600 gals. 

Weight of 60 per cent. C. soda per charge 1,741 lbs. 
Steam pressure (maximum) ... ... 90 lbs. 

Maximum temperature ... ... ... 331° Fah. 

Number of hours under pressure ... 15 

Proportion of 60 per cent. C. soda to 1 cwt. of cane = 

33-6 lbs. 
The black lye, after blowing off pressure = 16£ 

Twaddell at 60° Fah. 

The pulp obtained was well boiled but dark in appearance, 
resembling soda wood pulp. It bleached readily at a tempera- 
ture of 120° Fah. to a pale yellow colour, with 25 per cent, 
of its weight of bleaching powder (35 per cent, avail, chlorine), 
The yield did not exceed 40 per cent, of air-dry fibre on air-dry 
cane. 

Bisulphite Process. — A similar cane to the above was 
crushed between rollers and boiled in bisulphite of lime 
solution having a sp. gr. of 1-040 = 8° Twaddell, and of the 
usual composition prevailing in sulphite pulp works, precisely 
as in the case of wood boiling. The pulp obtained was soft, 
a pale yellow colour, and was readily washed with water. 
The boiled fibre was lighter in colour than the corresponding 
pulp obtained by the soda process, but turned a deep red on 
addition of bleaching powder solution. With 23 per cent, 
of its weight of bleaching powder it remained a pale yellow 



83 

tint, which could only be removed with permanganates. The 
actual yield of bleached air-dry pulp (10 per cent, watei) 
obtained was 42-7 parts per 100 parts operated upon, 

MEGASS, OR CRUSHED SUGAR, CANE. 

This material is closely allied to bamboo in its nature, 
but yields less fibre. The fibres are fine, smooth, only 
moderately long, and are surrounded with much intercellular 
matter. Its analysis is as follows: — Cellulose = 50-13 per 
cent., fat and wax = 0-78 per cent., aqueous extract = 
10-56 per cent., lignin and pectous substances — 24-84 per 
cent., water = 8-56 per cent., ash == 5-13 per cent. The 
above percentage of cellulose is never obtained in practice. 
Dalheim gives a yield of 29 "15 per cent, after treatment 
by the soda process, which closely corresponds with 
the author's experience, namely : The megass for examina- 
tion was obtained direct from a West Indian sugar factory, 
where it had been crushed and air-dried before shipment. 
It contained 8-4 per cent, of water (dried at 212° Fah.) and 
1-17 per cent, of ash. The ash consisted largely of sand, 
doubtless derived from the soil. 100 parts of megass yielded, 
by the soda treatment, 32*25 parts of bleached air-dry fibre 
containing 10 per cent, water. The amount of bleaching 
powder required to bleach it to a good white colour was 20 
per cent. The fibre by itself will make a very close sheet of 
paper, somewhat lacking in strength, but is very suitable 
for blending with other fibres in the production of printing 
and writing papers. 

WOOD CELLULOSE MANUFACTURE. 

The operations involved in this manufacture consist of, 
first, the preparation of the chips ; second, the preparation 
of the sulphide of sodium or caustic soda, or " bisulphite " 
liquor; third, digesting or "cooking" the wood; fourth, 
washing, screening, drying and packing the pulp ; fifth, 
recovering the alkali or sulphurous acid, as the case may be. 

Nearly every variety of wood can be reduced to pulp by 
one or other of these chemical processes, but spruce, silver fir, 
scotch fir, hemlock, or juniper, among the conifers, and the 
poplars among the broad-leafed trees are the most usually 
employed. Spruce (pinus picea) yields a long, strong cellulose 
of great felting power, which bleaches easily in presence of 
hypochlorites to a pure white colour, and is the most ex- 
tensively used wood for the production of sulphite cellulose. 
Scotch fir is not so well adapted to the sulphite process, and 
is seldom used, but by the soda process it yields a somewhat 
shorter fibre than spruce, possesses less felting power, and is 



84 

not so easily bleached with hypochlorites. Hemlock (or 
juniper), a member of the pine family, extensively distributed 
over North America, yields a long, strong fibre by the sulphite 
process, but owing to the presence of tannin-like bodies it is 
difficult to bleach. The poplars (populus tremulata, populus 
alba) are all readily reduced to pulp, both by the bisulphite 
and soda methods, yielding short, soft fibres, differing but 
slightly from one another, and all readily bleachable with 
hypochlorites. Their fibres possess low felting properties, 
and are used in the production of printing for book) and 
writing papers mixed with spruce cellulose or other fibre. 
By nature of their fineness poplar pulps serve to close the sheet 
of paper besides imparting to it a degree of softness or 
impressionability. 

Pulp Wood, consisting of either spruce, hemlock, poplar or 
other kind, is invariably purchased by measurement, and 
according to local custom. In Northern Europe, the general 
standard of measurement is the cubic metre. A space metre 
(raummeter) consists of a pile of logs measuring one metre 
cube. A solid metre (festmeter), on the other hand, consists 
of a solid cubic metre of wood based on the solid contents 
of each log. One space metre (35-31 cubic feet) of logs, having 
a diameter of about 8 inches, contains from 23 to 24 cubic 
feet of solid wood. This is equivalent to 72 per cent, of 35-31. 
One solid metre of wood of the above size is therefore equiva- 
lent to nearly 1-55 space metres. In England the cubic 
fathom (i.e., a*pile of logs measuring 6 feet by 6 feet by 6 feet 
= 216 cubic feet) is the recognised standard. Very occasionally 
it is bought by the load or 50 cubic feet solid measurement, 
calculated as usual from the diameter and length of the log. 
Obviously the cubic fathom is space measurement. In North 
America (U.S.A. and Canada) the recognised standards of 
measurements are, first, the " cord," or 128 cubic feet of 
piled wood (8 feet by 4 feet by 4 feet) ; and second, 1,000 
superficial feet board measure (B.M.). As the name implies, 
this latter consists of that quantity of logs of variable length 
and diameter which, when sawn, will yield 1,000 square feet 
of boards 1 inch in thickness. The contents of each log is 
calculated from its diameter at the small end, and its length, 
and expressed in " board measure." This is known as the 
*' survey," or scale. The survey in point of liberality varies 
within narrow limits according to locality. That quantity 
of logs which would yield 1,000 superficial feet B.M., if 
cut into equal lengths and piled parallel with one another 
will measure from 218 to 230 cubic feet, equivalent to 1-70 
to 1-80 cords of 128 cubic feet each. Imported pulp wood 
in England and America is usually " rossed," or peeled, before 



85 

shipment. The loss of weight due to peeling varies from 15 
to 30 per cent., depending upon the size and diameter of the 
logs and the mode of peeling them. The number of pieces, 
4 feet in length, in a cord, varies according to the diameter 
of the log. Thus Mr. H. M. Price, of Quebec, found by actual 
measurement that a cord of 128 cubic feet contained : — 

174 pieces when dia. of logs averaged 4 J inches. 

122 ,. „ „ „ ' 51 

100 „ „ „ „ 6J 

82 „ „ „ „ 7- T V „ 

He also found that a cord of spruce pulp wood, peeled and 
shipped the following winter or spring, weighed 3,000 lbs. 
Unbarked spruce wood, direct from the forest, weighs about 
3,800 lbs. per cord, and contains 32 to 33 per cent, water 
dried at 212° Fah. 

First. Cleaning the ivood and preparation of the chips. — 
The pulp wood is deprived of its bark either by hand labour 
or with a barking machine. Both systems of cleaning are in 
vogue, but peeling by machinery is by far the more universal. 
The peeled wood is then cut into slices, diagonal to the grain, 
with a machine called a chopper ; the slices thus obtained are 
broken up in a disentegrator, and the resulting chips sorted 
into different grades, from which different qualities of pulp 
are produced. In the case of peeled wood, delivered as such 
to the factory, the shavings, if any, are kept by themselves 
and converted into a lower grade product. In some factories 
the knots are removed from the peeled logs with a boring 
machine, prior to their conversion into chips, and these chips 
are, where labour is cheap, frequently again freed from knots 
by hand picking. 

Loss incurred in preparing chips, dbc. — The foregoing 
operations involve more or less loss of wood. 3,117 solid cubic 
feet of peeled wood weighing 98,263 lbs., in lengths of about 
16 feet, and of 6 J inches average diameter, when passed 
through the various operations, gave the following losses, 
viz. : — 

Shavings (hand peeling) 

Sawing into halves with band 
saw 

Sawing into 3-feet lengths with 
band saw ... 

Boring out knots with boring 
machine 

Waste from splitting ... 

Knots from sorting table 

Waste (unclassified) ... 

13,285 lbs. = 13-30°/ 



3,421 lb 


iS. = 


3-50% 


1,925 , 


, = 


2-00% 


757 , 


, = 


080% 


154 , 

286 , 
5,967 , 

775 , 


'. = 


0-02% 
0-03% 
6-10% 
0-85% 



86 

Deducting the quantity lost in cleaning (13,285 lbs.) from 
the total weight operated upon (98,263 lbs.) we have a yield 
of 84,978 lbs. of cleaned chips, which produced 36,921-5 lbs. 
of air-dry (10 per cent, water) first quality unbleached sulphite 
pulp, equivalent to 43-4 per cent, on the actual wood boiled. — 
Kircliner, Vol. III. 

The author, using imported wood freed from outer bark 
with the axe before shipment, and after exposure to the 
drying influence of the air for some months, obtained the 
following, viz. : Total wood taken, 7-18 cubic fathoms = 1,551 
cubic feet stacked logs = 1,163 cubic feet of solid wood = 
23-36 loads (50 cubic feet to the load). Total weight of wood 
= 38,584 lbs. (48-32 cwts.) per fathom. Average diameter of 
logs = 6^ to 6f- inches. Percentage of water in prepared 
chips = 24-6 per cent, (dried at 212° Fah.). 

Sawdust from cross-cut saw 

Shavings from barking machines 2,817 

Refuse from beneath chipper 

Fine sawdust from sieve 

Coarse sawdust from sieve 

Knots 

Cleaned and prepared chips 



It is possible to use the whole of the above wood for the 
manufacture of pulp, and this is done in some works, the 
shavings, sawdust, &c, in fact all excepting the prepared 
chips, being boiled separately, yielding a third quality fibre, 
whilst the chips themselves, freed from the above impurities, 
can again be separated into 90 per cent, of first quality and 
10 per cent, of second quality. Where pulp wood is dear this 
is certainly the most rational way of treating it. There are 
two systems of cleaning the chips, viz. : — 

The water system, employed both in Europe and America, 
which consists of placing the chips in a flow of water to allow 
the specifically heavier knots to fall to the bottom, whilst the 
pure wood floats and passes onward to be mechanically 
removed, partly dried, and finally conveyed to the chip loft 
ver the digesters. 



150 lbs. 


= 


0-39% 


es 2,817 „ 


= 


7-36% 


.. 1,060 „ 


= 


2-75% 


640 „ 


= 


1-66% 


836 „ 


= 


2-16% 


455 „ 


= 


1-18% 


.. 32,626 „ 


= 


84-50% 


38,584 lbs. 


= 


100-00% 



The air blast system consists of subjecting the chips in an 
oblong box, the bottom of which forms a series of three 
hoppers, to a blast of air introduced at the end and below the 
entrance of the chips. The strength of the air current is under 
control, and is so regulated that the heavy knots and large 
pieces of wood fall into the first hopper, the lighter and cleaner- 
pieces into the second, whilst any sawdust still remaining is 
blown into a third hopper, or into a depositing chamber. 
Both of these systems of separating the chips had their origin 
in Europe. 

The quantity of cleaned white wood obtained from the logs 
taken direct from the forest depends upon the diameter of 
the logs, the thickness of the bark, and the amount of shaving 
taken off whilst cleaning. Many trials have established the 
following : — 

100 cubic feet of stacked logs, 4 inches to 8 inches diameter 
at small end, yields 66 to 72 cubic feet solid wood. 

100 cubic feet of stacked logs, 4 inches to 6 inches diameter 
at small end, yields 61 to 65 cubic feet solid wood. 

100 cubic feet of stacked logs, 2f inches by 4 inches 
diameter at. small end, yields 48 to 50 cubic feet solid 
wood. 

It is therefore apparent that the smaller the diameter of 
logs the less cleaned wood can be obtained from them. In 
point of fact, the loss in barking pulp wood is controlled by 
many conditions, and varies enormously in different factories. 
Less care is observed in preparing the chips for the soda than 
for the sulphite process. 

There are three distinct processes of manufacture in use 
at present — viz., the caustic soda process, the so-called 
" sulphate " process, and the " sulphite " or " bisulphite " 
process. 



SODA PROCESS. 

This is the oldest method, and consists in digesting wood 
in caustic soda lye at temperatures ranging from 338° to 
355° Eah., corresponding to a steam pressure of 100 to 130 
lbs. per square inch above atmosphere. The yield of pulp 
varies indirectly with the proportion of caustic soda used, as 
in the preparation of straw cellulose. Originally the 
digesters were heated by direct fire, but now injected high- 



88 

pressure steam is used, the boilers being either rotating sphere* 
or upright stationary cylinders. In the latter esse, the heating 
is effected by injecting high-pressure steam into the charge at 
the lowest part of the digester; in the former, the steam is 
injected through the trunnion ends. 

E. Hennefeld gives the following as representing Swedish 
practice. There are two Aarieties of timber suitable for pulp 
making in that country, Fohre and Gran — i.e., pine and white 
spruce. Size of the tre'es are about 15 cm. dia. (=6 inches). 
The trees are separated into three different sizes— viz., 
15 — 25 cm. dia., 25 — 35 cm., and 35 cm. and over. The 
logs, after being barked by hand or machine, are cut into pieces 
12 mm. x 12 mm. x 1 mm. thick. The pulp digester in this 
particular case held 8^ cubic metres of chopped and cleaned 
wood. The volume of caustic soda lye per charge = 6,000 litres 
( = 1,320*7 gallons), and contained 75 kilos, of soda (Na 2 O) 
per cubic metre of wood. The pulp boilers were heated by 
direct steam to 125 lbs. pressure above atmosphere (353° Fah.). 
The length of time this pressure was maintained varied with the 
size (or age) of the pulp wood, thus : — 

35 cm. dia. and above, the pressure is maintained for 2 hours. 
35 - 25 cm. „ „ „ „ 1£ „ 

25 — 15 ,, „ „ „ „ 1 hour 

Each charge of the digester yields 1,240 kilos. = to 24-35 
cwts. of air-dry unbleached pulp = 145 - 9 kilos, per cubic 
metre of pulp wood. 

From the above figures the following are deduced : — 

60% caustic soda required per ton of air-dry pulp = 14 '75 cwts. 
Air-dry pulp per charge ... ... ... =24*35 ,, 



89 



02 

02 

w 
O 

< 

fa 

o 

02 
1 
ft 

o 
o 

> 

fa 
o 

H 

55 
fa 
P5 
fa 

fa 
fa 

3 

« 

fa 

5 
fa 

o 

ft 

fa 


Yield 
of Pulp 
on Dry 

Wood. 


Q lH Cp^COt^ioOiOOOi-^O^r-IOOOeO 
eOCOCCCOCOCOC-lCNlCOCOCOCMCOCOCOCO 


Weight of 
Clean Dry 
Wood per 
C. Metre. 


aJlOOSMOlHOO^OlCOlCCOCCOHtlO 


,2 X^ 00 lO -* l^- LC X- t£> <M 00 ** iO rH rH Ol CO 
fasOJMOlCNCOtN^rl^COOJCOco^tM^ltM 


Yield of 
Pulp from 

one C. 
Metre of 

Wood. 


Kilos. 
108-2 

88-2 
105 -7 

89.0 
116-8 

99-8 
139-8 

85-6 
108-4 

88-1 
100-6 
103-9 

85-7 
104 -8 
103-9 

81-3 


en 
J 13 


™ CO r-H CO 00 lO 00 r*H X- 00 rH 5D rl rH 00 © 


Kilos. 
230.0 
191-7 
252-2 
285-6 
160-3 
128-4 
327-5 
215-0 
227-3 
226-5 
269-6 
224-2 
241-0 
181-4 
100-1 
181-0 


Is 

fag 
to « 

fa S 


C9OWScpNH00T)lffiHOOOW00 

o~""<N TH-^OiOiMOOb-CJCOOOCNl-flasOOO 

.H <N (N <M rH r-l HMNHNHHHl-l 


Kilos. 

80.0 

j 36.0 

170.0 

147.0 

90.0 

55-1 

70.0 

111-5 

135.0 

175.0 

131-5 

166-5 

80-5 

111.0 

91.0 

97-5 


Weight of 

one C. 

Metre of 

Fresh Cut 

Wood. 


jjiooinisionoioooioiocmmin 


5t>®NNNOlO«"OOLO®(MMMS 
•^ H O ffl C ffl 1< W 1M ffl IO IN .. I— 00 OS 1-1 
^tOlOOl^OTtlCOtOiOfflNNiOiOlOO 


o 

! 

o 

.a 
fa 


S 

s 

o 

fa 


PinusPicea 

,, Abies 

,, Sylvestris 

,, Austriaca 

,, Larix 

,, Pumilio 
Fagus Silvatica 

BetulaAlba 

Populus Tremula 

Alba 

Sorbus Aucuparia ... 
,, Tominalis ... 

Salix Capre 

,, Fragilis 

Fraxinus Excelsior .. 
Alnus Glutinosa 


1 

C5 


Fichte 

Tanne 

Weissfohre 
Schwarzfohre ... 

Larche 

Legfohre 

Rothbuche 

Weissbirke 

Aspe 

Pappel 

Vogelbeere 

Elsbeere 

Sahlweide 
Bruchweide 

Esche 

Erie 



00 

The yield of pulp from tbe different Coniferce varies 
considerably In Germany and elsewhere Pinus sylvestris 
and Pinus nines are commonly used, the yield in actual 
manufacturing practice being as follows : — ■ 



l r ield of unbleached Cellulose from 
Soda process. 
(Manufacturing practice).— 



Conifer ce by Caustic 

MtJLLBR. 



One Ton of air-dry unbleached Wood pulp 
required. 



Pinus 
syloestrisi. 



Cubic feet of piled logs 

,, fathoms of piled pulp wood 
Cords of piled pulp wood ... 
Loads (one load = 50 cubic feet 
solid wood) 



336 
1-55 
2-G2 
544 



Pinus 

abies. 



369 
1-71 
2-88 
5-69 



One cubic fathom of piled pulp wood logs 
will yield of unbleached air dry pulp 



1,445 lbs. 



1,309 lbs. 



" Kraft " Pulp (Caustic Soda Process). — The pulp wood 
is barked by hand or machine, and chopped in the usual way. 
For every cubic metre (raummeter) of raw wcod there are 
used 750 litres of a caustic soda solution varying from 11 to 
13° Be. The boiling is carried out by gradually heating with 
direct steam (injected into the contents of the digester) till 
the temperature of the charge reaches 169 \° Cent., equal to 7 
atmospheres p essure, at which point it is maintained for 
ItI hours. The charge is then blown off, broken up, screened, 
washed, and pressed into bales, or otherwise transformed 
into " Kraft " paper. One hundred kilos, of " Kraft " pulp 
made by this process require 0-65 raummeter of raw pulp 
wood ; 13 kilos, of 58 per cent, ammonia soda ash ; 40 kilos, 
of lime ; and 250 kilos, of coal. 



SULPHATE PROCESS. 
The digesting fluid in this process consists of a mixture 
of caustic soda and sulphide of sodium. The sulphide of 
sodium is obtained by adding salt cake or sulphate of soda 
to the ash in the calcining or smelting furnace. During the 
ignition of the mixture, the sulphate of soda is reduced to 
sulphide by the carbonaceous matter derived from the wood, 
by the well-known reaction Na 2 S0 4 -f C 4 = Na 2 S + 4 CO. 
The reaction is similar to that which takes place in the 
Le Blanc method of making soda. The furnaces used are 
specially constructed to avoid an excess of air passing over or 



VI 



through the ignited mass, thereby preventing the oxidation 
of the sulphide of sodium formed. This substance forms at 
a dull red heat a fusible flux with the sulphate and carbonate 
of soda present, which runs from the furnace into a covered 
pit or into a tank containing water. This flux should possess 
a reddish colour if it is rich in sulphide of sodium, and 
nominally have the following composition : — 

Na CO 3 70-89% >. 

Na; S ' 1445% / 

Na„ S0 4 4-87% V Soluble in water 

Si0 2 2-35o/ \ 

Al 2 3 & Fe 2 3 trace. J 

Insoluble in water 6-18 % Muller. 

Sulphide of sodium by itself will act upon the incrusting 
materials of wood, but its action is not so vigorous as caustic 
soda. When the flux or recovered ash is dissolved in water, 
and the resulting liquor causticised in the usual way, a fluid is 
obtained of the following nominal composition, viz. : — 

Na„ C0 3 .' 11 to 12 grms. per litre. 

Na"OH 90 ,,100 ,, 

Na 2 S 25 „ 28 „ 

This process is used in the preparation of straw cellulose as 
well as wood cellulose (see page 115). 

The conditions for digesting are somewhat similar to those 
prevailing in the caustic soda method. The proportion of 
soda (caustic and sulphide) to wood is a little greater, and the 
pressure or temperature is highei- — 140 lbs. per square inch 
above atmosphere. The yield of pulp from spruce wood is 
also higher, and the pulp is stronger. The latter property, 
however, depends greatly upon the mode of manufacture. 

Yield of unbleached Cellulose from Coniferce by the 

" Sulphate" procesc. 

(Manufacturing practice). — Muller. 



One Ton of air-dry unbleached Wood pulp 
required. 


Pinus 
sylvestris. 


Pinus 
abies. 


Cubic feet of piled logs 

,, fathoms of piled pulp wood... 

Cords of piled pulp wood 

Loads (one load = 50 cubic feet 
solid wood) 


300 328 
1-39 1-52 
2-34 2-56 
4-86 5-U9 


One cubic fathom of piled pulp wood logs 
will yield of unbleached air dry pulp 

I 


1,611 lbs. 


1,473 lbs. 



92 

Further yields are as follows : — 

German Practice. — 100 kilos, of air-dry sulphate cellulose 
required 0-85 raummeter of spruce wood ; 15 to 16 kilos, salt 
cake or dry sulphate of soda, and 35 kilos, of burnt lime. 
{Pa-pier Zeitung, No. 94, 1897.) 

Scandinavian Practice. — 100 kilos, air-dry sulphate 
cellulose required 0-74 raummeter of Norway spruce ; 27 
kilos, salt cake and 35-1 kilos, of lime and 0-19 raummeter of 
fuel wood for soda recovery. 

A comparison of soda and sulphite wood cellulose under 
the microscope shows that a not inconsiderable quantity 
of the cellulose in the soda process is dissolved during digesting, 
whilst in the sulphite process, bodies other than real cellulose 
are left behind. 

" Kraft " Pulp by the Sulphate Process. — 1,000 litres 
of 13° Be. sulphate-lye are used per 1 raummeter of raw pulp 
wood (35-31 cubic feet). The steam from a finished digester is 
blown into another freshly prepared at a pressure of 7 
atmospheres, and then afterwards heated to 169|° Cent, 
with direct steam. This temperature is reached in from 4 
to 5 hours (the corresponding pressure being 7 atmospheres), 
and maintained for 1 or 2 hours as neces ity requires. 100 
kilos, of sulphate " kraft " pulp requires 0-63 raummeter of 
raw wood ; 21 kilos, of salt caka or crude sulphate of soda ; 
35 kilos, of lime, and 225 kilos, of coal. 



SULPHITE PROCESS. 

This method yields the maximum amount of cellulose from 
fibrous plants. It is mainly applicable to the treatment of 
wood, and consists in heating it at high temperature in an 
aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide (SO.,), in which a suitable 
normal sulphite is dissolved. The sulphite combines with the 
organic incrusting materials surrounding the cellulose forming 
soluble compounds, the separation of which is thus rendered 
possible by washing. The fluid used is technically known as 
" bisulphite liquor " and may contain either lime, magnesia, 
or soda as base, or a mixture of these. The proportion of 
S0 3 to bass varies considerably. A normal bisulphite or one 
containing two equivalents of S0. 2 to one of CaO, MgO oi' 
Na a O, as the case may be, is never used, the S0 2 being 
invariably in excess of the two equivalents (see page 96) 
Tilghman, the inventor of the process, in his original patent 
specification (1866) distinctly stated that the acid liquid he 
used to carry out his invention was an aqueous solution of 
sulphurous acid in which lime or other base was dissolved, 
which substantially corresponds to what is now universally 



93 

employed in sulphite pulp works. Although bisulphites from 
these bases are essentially alike in their chemical action 
an i properties, yet in manufacturing practice the more 
stable solutions, viz., soda and magnesia, yield a somewhat 
purer cellulose with less trouble. Under certain conditions 
Ca S0 3 separates during the "cooking" operation, owing to 
its greater insolubility, but where every precaution is taken 
to ensure proper proportion of CaO to S0. 2 in the liquor 
prepared for the digester, and care bestowed on the " cooking " 
operation, the product from bisulphite of lime very closely 
resembles that obtained from either bisulymite of soda or 
magnesia. Bearing this in mind, the question of choice of base is 
naturally regulated by the cost. A mixture of CaO and 
MgO occurs in nature, in the mineral " dolomite " (double 
carbonates of lime and magnesia) and offers the advantage of 
yielding a bisulphite liquor whose base consists largely of 
magnesia, the normal sulphite of which, Mg S0 3 is more 
soluble than the corresponding lime salt (see page 100) 
The operations in the process of preparing bisulphite liquor 
on the large scale consist of first producing S0 2 by burning 
sulphur (or brimstone) or pyrites (FeS 2 ) in the air, and 
secondly, forming bisulphites by absorbing this S0 2 in water 
in presence of the above bases or their corresponding car- 
bonates. 

S0 2 from Sulphur or Pyrites. — When sulphur burns in 
the air it unites with the oxygen to form S0 2 , and during 
the combustion a definite quantity of heat is generated. One 
pound of sulphur will, theoretically, yield 2 lbs. of S0 2 and 
generate 3,998 British thermal units. There is no increase in 
the volume of the gases due to the combination of the sulphur 
with the oxygen, and since air contains nearly 21 per cent. 
by volume of and 79 per cent, by volume of N, it follows 
that the maximum percentage of S0 2 in the kilns gases at 
atmospheric temperature and pressure cannot exceed 21 per 
cent, by volume. This is seldom or never obtained in manu- 
facture practice ; usually from 15 to 17 per cent, may be 
considered good work. The quantity of air measured under 
normal atmospheric pressure (760 mm.) and temperature 
(62° Fah.) containing the necessary oxygen for the complete 
combust'on of 1 lb. of sulphur into S0 2 is 56 cubic feet nearly. 
If the products of combustion from the sulphur kilns be 
analysed (see page 149), and the percentage volume of S0 2 
thus ascertained, the following table will give the corresponding 
volume of air used. 

Volumes of air required to burn 1 lb. (avoirdupois) of 
sulphur, according to the percentage of S0 3 , in the exit 
gases from the kilns : — 



Percentage by volurhe SO„. 


Volume of 


air. 


'4 ..." ... 


296-1. 


3ubic feet. 


5 


236-8 




6 


197-4 




7 


169-2 




8 


148-0 


»• 


9 


131-6 




10 


118-4 




11 


107-7 




12 


98-7 




13 


91-0 




14 


84-6 




15 


78-9 




16 


74-0 


>» 11 


17 


69-7 


", 


18 


65-8 


» 


19 


62-3 


» 


20 


59-2 


,, 



Note. — The percentage by volume of S0 2 in kiln gases can 
be ascertained by method described on page 149. 

Note. — One cubic foot of air 62° Fah. weighs 0-0761 lb. 
Air contains 23 per cent, by weight of oxygen and 77 per cent, 
by weight of nitrogen. 

Sulphur kilns are constructed of either wrought or cast iron, 
the latter being more usual. They occur in different forms, 
stationary, with or without agitators, and rotary. The draught 
should be carefully regulated and the upper part of the kiln 
kept at a uniform temperature. For this purpose the upper 
part of stationary kilns are sometimes covered with a water- 
jacket. Too little air or too high a temperature causes sub- 
limation of the sulphur which fouls the pipes leading to the 
towers or other absorbing apparatus. 

S0 2 from Pyrites. — What takes place during the com- 
bustion of sulphur is essentially the same when pyrites is 
burnt, excepting that the volume of air required, the total 
heat generated, and the maximum temperature produced are 
all relatively greater per unit of sulphur converted into S0 2 . 
The kilns for burning pyrites, with the necessary dust chamber 
and scrubber, the latter for removing S0 2 , are of a more 
complicated character. The pyrites in lumps of about 2 to 3 in. 
cube may be burnt in the ordinary kilns designed for the 
purpose and largely adopted in sulphuric acid factories, or in 
the well-known Herreshoff kiln, in the form of dust, " fines." 
or "smalls." The ordinary kilns for lumps are worked in 
groups and fed with the mineral at equal intervals of time 
and with equal quantities per charge. Pyrites (FeS a ) of 



95 

the best quality contains about 50 per cent, of S ; of these 
about 47 per cent, are burnt off in good practice, the remaining 
3 per cent, being left in the cinders or burnt ore. As the iron 
is oxidised to Fe 2 3 the burnt ore or cinders withdrawn 
from the kiln represents about 73 or 74 per cent, of the weight 
of the green or fresh ore used. A part of the S0 3 formed in 
burning sulphur and pyrites is always converted into S0 3 
which escapes with the other gases and forms sulphates in 
the bisulphite liquor apparatus. If present in large quantities 
it forms a hard scale on the surface of the limestone (marble) 
in the towers. As a general rule when burning sulphur from 
2 to 3 per cent, are converted by oxidation into S0 3 , whilst 
in the case of pyrites, as much as 13 per cent, may be con- 
verted into S0 3 . In the former case the presence of S0 3 
may be neglected, but the gases from pyrites kilns should be 
purified by passing them through a small tower called a 
scrubber, containing wet coke or limestone (Kellner), before 
conducting them to the towers. Theoretically, the maximum 
quantity of S0 2 possible in gases from pyrites is 16-2 per 
cent, by volume. The total heat of combustion of pyrites 
varies with the composition of the ore. 

The kiln gases, whether from sulphur or pyrites, require to 
be cooled to about 25° Cent, before they enter the towers 
or absorbing apparatus. 

This is done by passing them first through cast-iron pipes 
until their temperature is reduced below the melting point of 
lead, and then through leaden ones immersed in cold water. 
Sometimes a brick chamber is used containing coils of strong 
antimonial lead pipes kept cool by a current of cold water 
passing through them. 

There are several methods in practical use for absorbing 
the SO 2 in the preparation of the bisulphite liquor. 

First. — Bisulphite of lime prepared by the Tower systems 
(Flodquist, Frank of Korndall, Mitcherlich, Kellner, Ekman, 
and others). These limestone towers are usually upright 
cylinders built of wood (oregon or pitch pine) braced together 
with iron rods, from 5 feet to 6 feet in diameter, and of varying 
heights, each being provided with hard wood top and bottom. 
In the bottom of each tower an open wood grid is fixed about 
6 feet from the base, which slopes towards a door in front to 
allow the small pieces of limestone, &c, to be removed from 
time to time that accumulate at the lowest part of the column. 
Leaden pipes 12 inches to 18 inches diameter convey the gases 
from the sulphur kilns and cooler to the towers beneath this 
grid, and another pipe, 3 inches to 4 inches diameter, the 
prepared liquor from the towers to the storage tank. 

The water is distributed equally over the limestone afc the 



96 

top by means of a perforated wooden disc fixed inside. The 
draught is produced artificially with a fan and may be forced 
or induced. In the former case the fan is placed between the 
cooler and tower, whilst in the latter it is connected with the 
exit pipes from the top of the last tower. Sometimes a steam 
jet (Korting) composed of hard lead is employed instead of 
a fan. 

When the towers are of. moderate height, or about 20 feet 
high, as in Plodquist's system, they are worked in groups of 
six or eight, and in direct series, the cooled kiln gases being 
drawn through them in succession by pipes connecting the 
top of the first with the bottom of the second, and so on from 
second to third throughout the whole series. In this case the 
weak liquors produced in the back towers of the series are 
pumped on to the front towers, which receive the strong gas, 
the flow being so regulated as to yield a bisulphite liquor of 
the required density issuing from them. Mitcherlich's towers 
are usually 36 metres high (118 feet) by T6 metres diameter 
(5 feet 3 inches). Four towers of this size will yield bisulphite 
of lime liquor using soft limestone for 10,000 tons sulphite 
wood pulp a year. 

Usually a soft variety of white limestone is used, either 
marble or that found at Tofte, in Norway. Ekman, the base 
of whose bisulphite liquor was magnesia, used MgO obtained 
by calcined magnesite, the MgO being previously hydrated 
by sprinkling with water, in small towers of moderate size 
(6 feet diameter by 20 feet high). 

. Dolomite (double carbonates of lime and magnesia) can be 
used either alone or mixed with marble, but in the former 
case the results are unsatisfactory, owing to the hardness of 
the stone, unless the available tower capacity is very large. 

The descending stream of water in these towers absorbs 
the S0 2 as the cooled kiln gases ascend through the body of 
limestone, forming an aqueous solution of S0 2 which, acting 
on the Ca C0 3 forms Ca S0 3 . This salt, which is insoluble 
in water, is dissolved and held in solution by the excess of 
SO 2 in the liquid. The liquor flowing from the towers can 
be expressed by the formula Ca S0 3 x S0 2 Aqua, x being 
always greater than one equivalent. The temperature of the 
gases entering the tower is kept uniform or nearly so throughout 
the year, at about 25° Cent. The kiln gases should contain 
on an average from 15 to 16 per cent, by volume of S0 2 , and 
if this varies, so also must the flow of water entering the top 
of the towers in order that the bisulphite liquor flowing to 
the storage tanks register from 6 to 6|° Be at 30° Cent. 
Heat is generated by the action of the S0 2 on the Ca C0 3 . 
Under normal conditions the bisulphite of lime liquor should 
possess the following composition, viz. : — 



97 



Scandinavian Practice, using Flodqtjist's Towers and 
Soft Tofte Limestone. 

Composition of " Acid " from 
Sulphur. Pyrites. 

Free S0 2 2-422% 2-305% 

Combined S0 2 1-152% 1-386% 



Total SOo 



3-574% 3-691% 



CaO (by calculation) 1-008% 1-213% 

Degrees Be 6-2 6-0 

Degrees Centigrade ... ... ... 16-5 12-0 

Free SO. on 100 pts., total S0 2 ... 67-7% 62-4% 

CombinedS0 2 on 100 pts., total S0 2 32-3% 37-6% 



COMPOSITION OF BISULPHITE OF LIME PRO- 


DUCED IN MITCHERLIC1TS TOWERS, AS 


ASCERTAINED BY Dr. HARFP. 








ComtoinGct 


Per 100 of Total SO„ 


Degrees 
Baume. 


Total S0 o 

% 


Free SO., 
% 


so., 

% 


~ 


Free. 


Combined. 


3 


2-183 


1-421 


0-762 


65 


35 


2-288 


1-490 


0-798 


65 


35 


4 


2-483 


1-592 


0-911 


63 


37 


H 


2-634 


1-668 


0-966 


63-5 


se-h 


H 


2-807 


1-734 


1-073 


62 


38 


4| 


2-917 


1-787 


1-130 


61 


39 


5 


3-135 


1-971 


1-164 


63 37 


H 


3-264 


2-017 


1-217 


63 


37 


H 


3-408 


2-092 


1-376 


60 


40 


6f 


3591 


2-122 


1-469 


59 


41 


6 


3-784 


2-306 


1-478 


61 


39 


6? 


3-959 


2-368 


1-591 


60 


40 


6* 


4-186 


2-576 


1-610 


61-5 


38-5 


4 


4-309 


2-666 


1-643 


Q2 


38 


7 


4-543 


2-850 


1-693 


63 


37 


Note. — The "acid" flowing from the Towers loses 


free S0 2 on standing. 



The temperature of the water and inflowing gases passing 
to the towers should be kept as constant as possible and 
within certain limits, so that the outflowing " acid " from the 



98 

towers shall not exceed 30° Cent. When this temperature 
is exceeded, the proportion of S0 2 to CaO more nearly 
approaches two equivalents of the former to one of the latter. 
Before this point is reached, normal Ca S0 3 separates out as 
a Avhite precipitate and the " acid " becomes milky in 
appearance. 

Second. — Tub systems, using lime and magnesia (Frank, 
McDougall, Partington, Burgess, Stebbins and others). The 
principle involved in these systems is the absorption, at low 
temperatures, of the S0 2 gas, by forcing (Frank) or sucking 
(Partington, &c.) the kiln gases through weak milk of lime 
and magnesia prepared from calcined dolomite. For this 
purpose the milk of lime and magnesia is contained in a series 
of three or four tubs (about 12 ft. diameter by 5 ft. 6 in. deep 
inside), strongly built of hard pine to withstand a working 
pressure of about 11 lbs. per square inch. They are each 
provided with a mechanical agitator, driven overhead by bevel 
gears to keep their contents in continuous motion, and are 
placed at different levels so that the milk of lime and magnesia 
fed into the uppermost tub overflows by gravitation from one 
to the other in succession. Their overflow pipes are of lead, 
usually 4 in. diameter, and are so arranged that the liquid 
overflows from the surface of one tub to near the bottom 
of its lower neighbour throughout the whole series, until 
finally the overflow pipe from the lowest tub conveys .the 
" acid" to the storage tanks. The tubs are also connected 
together by strong leaden pipes, 6 in. to 8 in. diameter, to 
convey the gases from the top of one to the bottom of the 
other, the pipe to the lowest tub coming direct from the 
sulphur or pyrites kilns (the so-called " gas cooler " inter- 
vening), whilst that from the top of the highest tub is con- 
nected with a belt driven, geared double-acting vacuum or 
exhaust pump. This pump sucks the kiln gases through the 
liquid in the tubs from the lowest to the highest ; the direction 
in which the gases travel being obviously contrary to that of 
the milk of lime and magnesia. As the milk of lime and 
magnesia descends through the series of tubs it absorbs the 
S0 2 , and finally loses its milky appearance, becoming quite 
clear by the time it leaves the lowest tub. In this state, of 
100 parts of total S0 2 which it contains, usually 66 parts 
exist in the uncombined or free state, whilst 34 parts are 
combined with CaO and MgO as Ca S0 3 and Mg S0 3 
respectively. Both of these normal sulphites are held in 
solution by the free S0 2 present. A gauge glass, with sample 
tap at its lower end, is fitted to the side of the lowest tub to 
register the depth of the liquid within and to note its appearance. 
Samples of the liquid may be withdrawn through this tap. 



99 

The milk of lime and magnesia is prepared by mixing the 
calcined " dolomite " with hot water into a thick cream, 
in a wrought-iron vessel, from which it is emptied into a large 
wooden tub, provided with a vertical agitator, where it is 
diluted with cold water, until it registers a density of from 
1| to 2° of Twaddell's hydrometer, according to requirements. 
It is then passed through a fine brass sieve (60 meshes to the 
linear inch) into a lower storage tank, also fitted with an 
agitator, and from thence is pumped to the highest of the 
absorbing tubs. The quantity allowed to enter the tub is 
carefully regulated. The following represents the composi- 
tion of a calcined "dolomite"- suitable for the preparation 
of bisulphite of lime and magnesia liquor, viz. : — 

Mg C0 3 = 44-18 %, Ca C0 3 = 55-25 %, Al„ (X and 
Fe 2 3 = 0-27 %. 
This calcined dolomite, when made into a weak milk for use 
in the absorbing tubs, gave, on actual analysis : — 

CaO ... ... ... 6-31 grammes per litre. 

MgO 4-19 

10-50 

Sp.gr 1-0075 = 1-50° Twaddell. 

The percentage of S0 2 in, and the temperature of, the 
kiln gases, as also the temperature of the milk of lime entering 
the tubs, play an important role in the efficiency of this 
apparatus, and the composition of the liquor produced. The 
following figures represent good manufacturing practice : — 
Average percentage S0 3 in kiln gases ... 16-1 
Average temperature of kiln gases entering 

tubs 24° Cent. 

Composition of Acid— Free SC% 2-03 % 

Combined S0 2 ... 1-08 % 

Total S0 o ... 3-11% 

Sp. gr. at 17° Cent., 1-0315 = 6-3° Twaddell. 

Of 100 parts of total S0 2 in this liquor, 34-7 parts are com- 
bined with CaO and MgO forming normal sulphites, whilst 65-3 
parts exist in the uncombined or free state. The actual 
amount of bases (CaO and MgO) may be obtained by calcula- 
tion from the amount of combined S0 2 and the relative 
quantities of CaO and MgO existing in the calcined 
" dolomite." 

Capacity of Bisulphite of Lime Apparatus. — Dr. 
Frank's apparatus, consisting of sulphur kiln, coolers, lime 
mixing tank, and three absorbing vessels of the aggregate 
capacity of about 1,200 cubic feet, and all auxiliary apparatus, 



100 

will yield 13,000 gallons of bisulphite of lime liquor from 
caustic lime or calcined dolomite per 24 hours. This is equal 
to a daily output of 8 to 9 tons (2,240 lbs.) of air-dry cellulose. 

Bisulphite of Magnesia is prepared by passing the cooled 
kiln gases obtained by burning sulphur through small towers 
filled with hydrated calcined " magnesite " (Mg C0 3 ) in 
lumps, the latter being kept moist with a downflow of water. 
The towers are of small size, about 20 feet high by 5 feet 
or 6 feet in diameter, and yield indifferent results, chiefly due 
to the calcined " magnesite "■ packing so closely as to seriously 
interfere with the draught. A more satisfactory method is 
to pass milk of magnesia (prepared by grinding the calcined 
magnesite in an edge runner mill to a fine cream with water, 
then diluting largely), down a tower built of sheet lead, and 
filled with large flint stones while the kiln gases pass upward 
by induced draught. The proportion of magnesia to water 
forming the milk are carefully regulated- The bisulphite 
flowing from the tower has the following composition : — 



Percentage of combined and free Sulphurous Acid (S0 2 ) 


in solutions of Bisulphite of Magnes 


ia for Sulphite 


Pulp Manufacture. 




Specific Gravity at 
60° Fan, 


Degrees 
Twaddell 
60° Fah. 


Total 

SO., 

% 


Free 
S0 o 

% 


Combined 
SO„ 
% 


1-025 


5 


2-279 


1-205 


1-073 


1-0275 


H 


2-464 


1-305 


1-159 


1-030 


6 


2-724 


1-442 


1-282 


1-0325 


6* 


2-934 


1-553 


1-381 


1-035 


7 


3-155 


1-670 


1485 


1-0375 


n 


3-382 


1-797 


1-587 


1-040 


8 


3-605 


1-913 


1-692 


1-0425 


H 


3-828 


2-031 


1-797 


1-045 


9 


4-000 


2-124 


1-876 


1-0475 


9* 


4-272 


2-266 


2-006 


1-050 


10 


4-494 


2-384 


2-110 


1-0525 


10$ 


4-667 


2-477 


2-190 


1-055 


11 


4-939 


2-619 


2-320 


The above values are not absolute. 



101 

Bisulphite of Soda may be prepared from a weak aqueous 
solution of soda ash in the tubs in lieu of lime and magnesia, 
or by adding a nearly saturated solution of sulphate of soda 
to one of bisulphite of lime, when the following reaction takes 
place, viz., CaS0 3 x S0 2 Aq + Na a S0 4 = Ca S0 4 2H 2 
+ Na 2 SO 2 x S0 3 Aq. The decomposition of the bisulphite 
of lime by adding a slight excess of sulphate of soda is fairly 
complete — i.e., from 90 to 95 per cent. The author has 
obtained good, cellulose for some years by using this method. 
It is also understood to be in successful operation in one 
Austrian works. 

Bisulphite of soda liquor prepared by this method, using a 
bisulphite of lime containing 3-66 per cent, total S0 2 , 2-181 
per cent, free SO„, 1-53 per cent. S0 3 combined with CaO 
and a sulphate of soda solution obtained from salt cake or 
crude Na 2 S0 4 , from which the iron and alumina had been 
previously removed by precipitation with lime, and containing 
189-2 grammes anhydrous Na„ S0 4 per litre, gave, on analysis : 

Free SO„ - . 1-597% 

Combined SO 2 1-303% 

Total SO, 2-900% 

This liquor "contained CaSO a , 0-472 per cent. ; Na„ S0 3 , 
3-053 per cent. ; Ca S0 4 , 0-090 per cent. ; Na 2 SO 4 /0-488 
per cent. The precipitation of the Ca S0 4 , + 2H 2 0, 
takes place very rapidly at 120° Fah., and in the above instance 
5 per cent, excess of Na 2 S0 4 was added. The precipitated 
Ca S0 4 , + 2H 2 0, is pure white, and when filtered, washed, 
dried, ground and sieved, yields an excellent loading (" pearl 
hardening ") for paper manufacture. 

BOILING. 

There are various systems in general use for boiling the 
chips in the digester. The slow or long cook system was 
instituted by Mitcherlich, whose contributions to the science 
and technology of the industry have been of great importance. 
He employs horizontal, cylindrical digesters, with circular 
ends lined with glazed earthenware tiles, and heated by steam 
coils of hard lead. These digesters measure twelve (12) 
metres long by four (4) metres in diameter ; have a total cubic 
capacity of one hundred and thirty-four (134) cubic metres 
(4,706 cubic feet). They hold one hundred cubic metres of 
wood, sixty (60) cubic metres of bisulphite liquor, and yield 
about ten thousand (10,000) kilos, (ten tons) of cellulose per 
charge. 

The mode of boiling is as follows : — The digester is first 
filled with chips, and these are steamed gently with direct 



102 

steam to remove volatile oils, &c., the condensate being run 
away. During this operation the so-called turpentines and 
wood acids formed are removed and the air is expelled. After 
the steaming has been completed, all cocks are closed, excepting 
that directly connected with the acid storage tank, and in 
virtue of the partial vacuum formed within the digester by 
cooling, the acid is sucked into it until it is full. The acid 
valve is then shut, and the relief valve opened, and the heating 
or boiling of the charge begun. The temperature is raised 
very gradually by means of the coils, and is never allowed to 
exceed 120° Cent., the pressure is kept at forty-five (45) to 
fifty-two (52) lbs. above atmosphere. Frequent samples of 
the liquor are withdrawn from the digester and tested for 
sulphurous acid, more especially towards the end of the 
process, to ascertain how the chemical reaction is going on. 
When the percentage of S0 2 has sunk to that point in accord- 
ance with the prevailing practice consequent on the kind of 
pulp required, and the peculiarities of the particular apparatus 
in use, the steaming is stopped and the superincumbent 
pressure blown off. The pulp is then washed twice with 
water and finally removed. An analysis of the time occupied 
in the different operations is as follows : — 

Filling with wood ... 2 hours. 

Steaming... ... ... ... ... 4 

Filling with liquor ... ... ... 2 

Boiling ... ... 35 

Blowing-off pressure, &c. ... ... 3 

Washing twice ... ... 6 

Emptying and getting ready for next 

charge ... ... ... ... 5 



Total time for one boiling — 57 hours. 



Eleven to twelve boilings per month, yielding 110 to 120 tons 
of air-dry cellulose. 

Owing to the gentle nature of the chemical treatment which 
the wood receives under the low temperatures employed, 
the strength of the fibres is preserved, and by this process the 
strongest sulphite pulp is obtained. 

On the other hand, in the quicker method of cooking, the 
chips are not subjected to a preliminary steaming, but the acid 
is added immediately the digester is filled with them. Nor 
are the contents, as a rule, heated by steam coils, but with 
injected steam admitted at the lowest part of the digester. 
In some cases the charge is heated up to a certain point with 
injected steam, and thereafter, with steam coils, but in all 
cases whenever quick cooking is desired the maximum tempera- 



103 

ture is seldom less than 135° Cent., and frequently reaches 
144° Centi. The chemical action between the resinous 
matters surrounding the fibres in the wood and the bisulphite 
is accelerated by increase of temperature. Owing to the 
tension of the S0 3 gas inside the digester the pressure bears 
no definite relation to the temperature as is the case with 
water, so that during the "cooking" the pressure, varying 
from seventy-five (75) to ninety (90) lbs. per square inch above 
atmosphere, is kept constant, or nearly so, by means of a 
release valve, the S0 3 thus escaping being recovered as 
described below. 

When the charge is finished, a point ascertained by examina- 
tion of a sample of the liquor by chemical test (iodine), as also 
by its appearance and smell, the steam is shut off, and if the 
contents are to be "dumped" into a drainer in contradistinction 
to being blown off under the full pressure prevailing at the 
finishing point, the pressure within is blown off, the valve 
at the bottom of the digester opened, and the whole charge 
run by gravitation into a draining pit. In some works the 
liquor is drained from the pulp whilst the latter is still in the 
digester, and while the pressure is being blown down, due 
allowance in such cases being made in the amount of S0 2 
left in the liquor at the so-called finishing point, to compensate 
for the extra time the charge is -kept at a high temperature. 
In America, where the blow-off system of emptying the 
digesters is universally used, this point is carried as far as 
required. Immediately it is reached, a large valve at the 
bottom of the digester is opened, and the charge ejected into 
a large covered wooden tub, having a perforated false bottom 
to drain off the liquid contents, and a chimney to allow the 
steam to escape. In this tub the pulp is also washed. By 
the sudden release of the pressure and consequent generation 
of steam, as also the force of impact against the side of the 
tub, the bundles of fibres are thoroughly broken up in this 
act of blowing off, rendering unnecessary a special apparatus 
for this purpose. The pulp from these tubs is therefore passed 
direct to the screens without further disintegration. 

The precise mode of handling the cooking operation varies 
almost in every factory, depending upon the quality of fibre 
required. Usually from 12 to 15 hours are occupied in cooking 
one charge and emptying and refilling the digester with acid 
and chips. In Mitcherlich's system, on the other hand, the 
same operations occupy from 60 to 70 hours. 

RECLAIMING THE S0 2 . 
During the " cooking" operation, SO a is allowed to escape 
from the upper part of the digesters and is recovered for 
re-use, various forms of apparatus having been arranged for 



104 



this purpose. In all cases the object in view is to enrich the 
freshly-prepared bisulphite liquor obtained from the lime- 
stone towers or absorption tubs with uncombined S0 2 . 
The principle involved in this recovery process is simply one 
of cooling and absorption. The steam and S0 3 gas, with a 
little liquor from the digesters, are thoroughly cooled by being 
conducted through coils of hard lead immersed in cold water, 
the condensate and any cooled unabsorbed S0 2 gas being 
passed directly into the freshly-prepared bisulphite liquor. 
The latter readily absorbs the gassous S0 3 and blends with 
the condensate. The amount of S0 3 thus circulating between 
the digesters and storage tank varies according to the extent 
of escape employed in the process of " cooking," but its 
magnitude may be gathered from the following trials per- 
formed by the author in a large Scandinavian sulphite pulp 
factory using bisulphite of lime. In this particular factory 
the freshly-made bisulphite of lime from the limestone tower 
was pumped into a lead-lined tank placed on a higher level 
than the digesters, and its volume in cubic metres, tem- 
perature and density carefully recorded, and its composition 
ascertained by chemical analysis. The escape from the 
digesters, without being cooled, was blown into the body 
of the cold liquor until its temperature was raised to 40° Centi. 
(at 50° Centi. the Ca S0 3 is precipitated), by which time 
practically all the recoverable S0 2 had passed away from 
the digester. The volume of the warm " acid " in the tank 
was then measured, and its temperature, density and com- 
position ascertained with the following results : — 

Recovery op SO„ prom Sulphite Digesters. 





Bisulphite of Lime Liquor. 




Before 


After 




receiving 


receiving 




" Escape." 


" Escape." 


Cold bisulphite of lime liquor in 


cm. 


cm. 


tank 


15-90 


16-75 


Density in degrees Be 


6-20 


6-25 


Temperature in degrees Centi.... 


17-0 


40-0 


Composition : 






Total S0 2 


3-585 


4-410 


Free S0 2 


2-480 


3-330 


Combined S0 2 


1-090 


1-080 


Kilos of S0 2 in liquor 


571-0 


738-6 


Volume of liquor used per charge 






in digester 


12-5 


12-5 


Kilos S0 2 used per charge in 


digester 


551-2 



105 



In this particular factory the digesters were of the revolving 
cylindrical type, had each an internal capacity of 1,072 
cubic feet, contained per " charge " 910 cubic feet of prepared 
chips and 2,740 imperial gallons of bisulphite liquor, and 
yielded on an average per charge — 4,200 lbs. of air-dry sul- 
phite cellulose. From these figures one ton or 2,240 lbs. of 
air-dry pulp required 572 cubic feet digester space per charge. 
485 cubic feet of chips, weighing from 12 to 14 lbs. per cubic 
foot (one cubic foot of prepared chips containing 22 per cent. 
H 3 — dried at 100° Centi. — weighed 12 J lbs.) ; 1,461 imperial 
gallons of prepared " acid" containing 4-41 per cent. S0 2 = 
322 lbs. sulphur, of which 98 lbs. or 30-5 per cent, were re- 
covered or sent back to the storage tanks for re- use, according 
to the above trialr-. 

As above stated the most frequent practice is to pass the 
escaping gases, &c, from the digester after cooling in coils 
into the freshly-prepared liquor contained in the storage tank, 
the capacity of which, as a rule, is large. The following 
represents the average (of many months) composition of such 
liquors in a pulp factory using a mixture of bisulphite of 
lime and magnesia prepared in absorbing tubs from sulphur 
and calcined " dolomite," before and after receiving the 
recoverable S0 2 from the digesters : — 





Liquor 

before 

receiving 

Recovery. 


Liquor 

after 

receiving 

Recovery. 


Free SO. 

Combined S0 2 


Per cent, 
2-03 
1-08 


Per cent. 

3-22 

•93 


Total S0. 2 


311 


4-15 


Sp. gr. at 62° Fah 


1-0315 


1 -0350 



Assuming that only a negligible quantity of liquor escaped 
from the digester with the steam and S0 3 , as was actually 
the case in this instance, since the total quantity of combined 
SO,, in the " acid " remains substantially constant, although 
the quantity expressed in per cents, by volume or in grammes 
per litre will diminish according to the extent of the dilution, 
it is obvious that the amount of dilution can be ascertained 
by calculation, thus:— 1-08: 0-93:: 100: 117; which 
means that 100 volumes of cold acid became 117 volumes 
after the addition of the products of recovery. Also that 
100 x 3-11 : 117 x 4-15 : : 100 : 156 or the amount of SO. 



1C6 

(or sulphur) received from the digester was 56 parts of that 
actually put into it (156 parts) and therefore the percentage 
recovered was equal to 35-9 (i.e., 156 : 56 : : 100 : 35-9). This 
result nearly coincides with the author's foregoing figure 
obtained by actual measurement and was obtained from 
rotary digesters in which 1,458 imperial gallons of bisulphite 
liquor were used per ton (2,240 lbs.) of pulp produced. 

In the case of upright stationary digesters, the volume 
of bisulphite liquor used per ton (2,240 lbs) of pulp made 
varies considerably and, as a rule, a larger excess is added 
than in the case of rotary digesters. Thus in one works in 
which upright stationary digesters of moderate capacity 
(3 tons per charge) were in use, the volume of bisulphite 
liquor added was 2,135 imperial gallons to the ton (2,240 lbs.) 
pulp, air-dry weight ; whilst in another with digesters of three 
times this capacity, the volume was 2,200 gallons- 

Summarising a long series of observations, the author has 
concluded that : — 

1. The quantity of sulphur sent back from the digester 

to the storage tanks varies from 30 to 40 per cent, 
of the total added to the digester. 

2. The percentage dilution varies according to the mode 

of recovery and to whether or not the whole of 
the liquor passing from the digester is allowed 
to flow through the cooling coils into the storage 
tanks. The variation amounts to from 17 to 
38 per cent, reckoned on the cold acid into which 
the recovery is discharged. 

3. The volume of acid required per ton of pulp made 

in rotary digesters varies from 1,450 to 1,600 
imperial gallons ; and in stationary digesters varies 
from 1,800 to 2,200 imperial gallons. 

SODA RECOVERY. 

The waste soda lyes from esparto, straw and wood boiling, 
by either the soda or sulphate processes, are evaporated 
to dryness, and the residue calcined in order to recover the 
soda for re-use. There are two types of evaporators used for 
this purpose, namely, open, or surface evaporators, of which 
there are a great many kinds, notably those introduced by 
Porion and Enderlein ; and evaporators in which the liquid 
is concentrated with steam in vacuo to a high density, such 
as Chapman's, and the well-known Yaryan multiple evapora- 
tors. In respect to economy of fuel, the multiple evaporator, 
in conjunction with a steam generating plant at the end of 
the roaster in which the concentrated lye is incinerated, is the 
best, although Enderlein's apparatus very closely approaches 
it. 



107 

The organic matter associated with the soda, derived from 
the wood or fibrous plant, has a certain calorific value, which, 
if properly utilised, reduces to a minimum the quantity of 
fuel required. This calorific value can be ascertained by the 
aid of a calorimeter. Both its amount and heating value 
naturally vary with the kind of fibrous plant treated. The 
former can be ascertained either by analysis or by calculation 
and so also can the water associated with it. (See page 74.) 
There is approximately one ton of combustible matter obtained 
for every ton of air-dry pulp made from spruce wood by the 
caustic soda process. 

The Porion Evaporator, into which the waste soda lye is 
fed from a tank overhead, consists of a spacious rectangular 
brick chamber, the bottom of which forms a shallow reservoir, 
containing two cross shafts driven from the outside and 
carrying a series of paddles which, revolving at a high speed, 
throws the lye in the form of a fine spray into the upper part 
of the chamber — that is, into the current of hot fuel gases 
passing through the chamber from the calcining hearth to the 
chimney. When the lye on the bottom of the chamber has 
reached a density of from 45 to 50° Twaddell it is drawn off 
and conveyed by a bucket elevator or pump to a storage 
tank placed over the roasting or calcining furnace. The final 
concentration and incineration of the residual soda is carried 
out on the hearth of this furnace by means of a coal fire 
placed at one end, the products of combustion passing as above 
indicated into the Porion chamber. It is claimed that by 
this mode of recovery, 5,600 gallons of 8° Twaddell lye 
containing one ton (2,240 lbs.) of recovered ash (45/46 per cent. 
Na„0) are evaporated, and the residue calcined, with an 
expenditure of 2,770 lbs. of ordinary slack coal. 

Enderlein's system of evaporation is similar in principle, 
but instead of a series of arms on the shaft revolving at a 
rapid rate to produce a spray of the liquid in the upper part 
of the chamber, he arranges a series of wrought-iron discs, 
about six inches apart, on the shafts, through the intervening' 
spaces of which the fuel gases from the roaster — which may 
be stationary or revolving — must pass on their way to the 
chimney. The discs are^ partly immersed in the lye, and as 
they revolve they offer a large heating or evaporating surface to 
the' passing hot fuel gases. 

The complete apparatus for this system, which is specially 
adapted to the " sulphate " process, consists of : — First, 
a " smelter," 1-2 metres square area by 2 metres in height ; 
second, a rotary roaster, 5 metres long by 2\ metres in 
diameter ; and third, the evarx)rator specially constructed by 
Enderlein himself. This evaporator may be built of wrought 



108 

^on. When this is done, it consists of a vessel about 16 feet 
long by about 7 feet deep and 14 feet wide, and contains two 
cross shafts, upon which are arranged the wrought-iron discs. 
These shafts, carrying the plates or discs, rotate about 10 
revolutions per minute. The black lye from the digester 
is concentrated in this evaporator to about 38° Be., and from 
thence is run into the rotary roaster, where the remaining 
water is driven off and where the organic matter is partly 
burned. Enderlein recommends, however, that the com- 
bustion in the roaster should be minimised, in order to prolong 
the life of the roaster itself, and to obtain the maximum 
temperature in the smelter. The heat from the smelter 
passes through the roaster and then through the evaporator. 
The black mass from the rotary roaster, as it falls on the floor, 
is mixed with a proportion of salt cake, or crude sulphate of 
soda, and then thrown into the smelter, where, by the aid 
of a blast of air, it is fused at a bright red heat and flows in 
liquid form from the furnace. Usually it flows direct to a 
vessel containing water, in which it rapidly dissolves. From 
thence the strong alkaline solution is pumped to the causticiser. 
The chemical reaction which takes place within the smelter 
is a very simple one. The sulphate of soda is reduced by the 
carbon derived from the wood, or other fibrous plant, at a 
red heat, thus :— iSTa 2 S0 4 + 40 = Na; S + 4CO. 

The carbonate of soda remains unchanged. 

In one such apparatus, containing two shafts, each with 
32 discs, the latter having a total heating surface of 350 square 
metres and revolving nine times per minute, from 70 to 80 cubic 
metres of waste lye from the sulphate pulp process are con- 
centrated from 16° Be. to 35 or 38° Be. Of this total heating- 
surface one-sixth dips into the lye in the evaporator, leaving 
five-sixths available for active evaporation. This apparatus, 
in conjunction with a rotary roaster and smelter, is capable 
of producing 4,600 tons (1,000 kilos.) of smelt per year, equal 
to about 13,500 kilos, smelt per day of 24 hours. 

If 15 per cent, be deducted from the daily output of smelt 
due to the addition of sulphate of soda, there remains 11,475 
kilos, of smelt from the black waste lye. This waste lye 
enters the evaporator proper at 16° Be. and leaves it at 38° B.e, 
which corresponds to 143 kilos, per cubic metre for the weak 
lye and 460 kilos, per cubic metre for the concentrated lye. 
We have, therefore, 11,475 ■+■ 143, or 80 cubic metres weak 
lye, and 11,475 -f- 460, or 25 cubic metres of strong lye, the 
difference of 55 cubic metres or 55,000 litres being the water 
evaporated in 24 hours for the 300 square metres available 
evaporating surface of the discs. The water evaporated per 
square metre of heating surface of the discs is 55,000 -f- 
(24 x 300), or 7-64 kilos, per hour. (KircJmer.) 



109 

As a general rule, when the lye is fed to this apparatus 
at 16° Be\, no fuel is required beyond the organic matter 
associated with the soda. Enderlein states, on the other 
hand, that if the lye averages 10° Be. the consumption of coal 
is 250 kilos per ton (1,000 kilos) of pulp produced. When the 
lye registers less than 10° Be., such as that from esparto or 
straw, a multiple evaporator in conjunction with the Enderlein 
system is more economical. To obtain a high percentage of 
soda recovery such a combination is necessary. 

(See page 116 for composition of smelt, &c.) 

Quadruple or triple -effect multiple evaporators are very 
frequently employed, to concentrate the weak soda lyes to a 
density of from 50° to 70° Twaddell, the final evaporation and 
calcining of the residual mass being carried out on the hearth 
of a reverberatory furnace, or rotary roaster, heated by a coal 
fire. The heat from the reverberatory furnace or roaster 
arising mostly from the combustion of the organic matter 
associated with the soda, is utilised in a variety of ways, but 
most frequently by generating steam for use in the evaporating 
pans. The high efficiency of the Yaryan, Chapman, and such- 
like evaporators in point of water evaporated per pound of 
steam used, makes such a system economical in respect to 
consumption of fuel. The following results were obtained from 
esparto liquors at Esk Mills, with Triple effect Yaryan and 
Jardin's reversible roaster. Liquors from esparto boiling. 
Twaddell of feed liq ... 7°) . ff 35 o 

,, concentrated liq. ... 42°) 

70°/ o caustic used, 190 cwts. = 277 cwts. 48% ash. 
48% soda ash recovered = 512 ,, 

Total 48% used 789 cwts. 

48 / o Ash recovered 606 cwts = 76*8% 

Coal. — 

Tons. Cwts. per Ton of ash 

Consumed at Yaryan ... 33 ■ 35 = 2 1'j at Yaryan boiler. 
,, roaster ... 7-55 = 4f at roaster. 

Total for Yaryan and roaster 26|- c tvts. 

Labour. — Cost of labour at Yaryan and roaster, 5s. per 
ton of ash recovered. — Paper Trade Review. 

With the Chapman apparatus at Henden Paper Works, 
which consisted of a quadruple effect evaporator of upright 
pans, in connection with a double-flued steam boiler into 
which the weak esparto liquors were pumped, and from 
which the necessary steam for the evaporators was generated 
with coal, the following results were obtained. The amount 



110 

of coal required to complete the calcination of the ash in the 
roaster is not given, and therefore the coal consumption 
represents the concentration of the lye to 46£° Twaddell only. 
200,000 gallons of black liquor of 5£°T. at 160° Fah. are 
reduced to 20,370 gallons of thick liquor of 46£° T. at 125° 
Fah. ready for the roasters by an expenditure of 20 tons 
11 cwt. 3 qrs. of small coal, equivalent to an evaporation of 
37 lbs. of water per pound of coal used, and to 10J cwt. coal 
per ton of ash recovered, without counting the coal used at 
roaster. — Paper Trade Review, 1890. 

At Croxley Paper Mills a trial was made on esparto liquors? 
lasting four hours, with quadruple Yaryan apparatus, the 
measurements and tests being taken by the then manager 
of the mill, Mr. J. W. Wyatt, with the following results 
[Paper Trade Review) : — 
Steam Boilers — 

Boiler pressure ... ... 65 lbs. 

Coal used per hour ... ... 10 cwts. 

Water evaporated per hour ... 572 galls. (5^ lb. per 
Weak Ltqtjor — lb. coal). 

Amount of feed per hour ... 1,537^ galls. 
Density of liquor in store tank 4° Twad. at 90° Fah. 
Strong Liquor — 

Amount of concentrated liquor 

per hour ... ... ... 17 6h galls. 

Density of concentrated liquor . 36° Twad. at 138° Fah. 
Evaporation in Yaryan — 
Water evaporated from weak 

liquor per hour ... ... 1,361 galls. 

Percentage of original volume . 88J % 
Pressure — 

Steam pressure in shell of first 

effect 17 lbs. 

Steam pressure in first separat- 
ing chamber ... ... 2 lbs. 

Vacuum in second separating 

chamber ... ... ... 6 in. 

Vacuum in third separating 

chamber ... ... ... 14| in. 

Vacuum in fourth separating 

chamber ... ... ... 23 in. 

Distilled Water — 

Amount of drip water per hour 1,535 J galls, at 176° Fah. 
Amount of vacuum water per 

hour ... 372 galls, at 125° Fah. 

Total amount of hot distilled 

water produced per hour ... l,907£ galls. 



Ill 

Steam used in Evaporator — 
Amount of steam condensed in 
first effect (1,9071 galls., less 

1,361 galls.) 5461 ga n s . 

Steam used for Pumps — 
Amount of steam used for 
working the pumps (572 
galls., less 546 J galls.) ... 25 J galls. 
Coal used — 

For pumps 50 lbs. 

To raise liquid from 90° Fah. to 

boiling point 390 lbs. 

To evaporate 1,361 galls, from 

boiling point 680 lbs. 

1,120 lbs. 

Actual Work performed by the Yaryan Apparatus. — 
l,537Jr galls, of liquor raised from 90° Fah. to boiling point, 
and 1,361 galls, of water evaporated out of it, at an expenditure 
of 1,070 lbs. of coal, or 12-72 lbs. of water actually evaporated 
per pound of coal used. 

Evaporative result op the Yaryan. — 1,361 galls, of 
water evaporated from boiling point at an expenditure of 
680 lbs. of coal, or 20 lbs. of water evaporated from boiling 
point per pound of coal, with only 5-J^ lbs. evaporation in 
the steam boiler. 

Note. — In the above calculation the amount of steam 
required to drive the pumps is not included, as the exhaust is 
utilised for purposes in the works other than evaporation in 
the Yaryan. 

The boilers used gave the above low evaporation per pound 
of coal on account of the mechanical stokers not being at the 
time in order. If they had been arranged and fired so as to 
evaporate 8 lbs. of water per pound of coal (a low average for 
good steam boilers), the above " Evaporative Result " of the 
Yaryan would have been at the rate of 3H lbs. of water per 
pound of coal. 

Mr. Wyatt also published, in the Paper Makers' Monthly 
Journal of July, 1889, the results, among others, of the 
concentration of soda liquors in a poplar pulp manufactory 
in the United States of America, which is representative of 
American practice. The rotary roasters were heated by a 
coal fire, and the waste heat passing from the roasters was 
utilised for raising steam for driving the necessary pumps 
and feeding the Yaryans. This particular mill works three 
11 -coil triple-effect Yaryans in connection with three Warren 
rotaries, and produces about 40,000 lbs. of ash, testing 49 per 
cent. Na 2 O, in 24 hours, from liquor at 6|° to 7° Be\ at 145° 
Fah., concentrated to 35° to 37° Be. at 125° Fah., in the 
Yarvans. 



112 

The concentrated liquor is pumped into store tanks, from 
which it runs to the rotaries in a continuous stream. 

The cost for the month of November, 1888, was as follows : — 

101f tons of coal at $3.15 per ton $320.91 

Labour 357.85 

Repairs 98.02 



Total $776.78 



Ash recovered, 951,540 lbs. 

Cost per 100 lbs. of ash = 8.16 cents. 

The labour consists of : — 

1 man per 12 hours for 3 Yaryans at $1.75 per day. 

3 men „ „ 3 Rotaries 2 at $1.75 

1 at $1.50 
= 8 men per 24 hours, at a cost of $13.50. 

The coal used is a soft bituminous slack. The percentage of 
recovery is about 85 per cent. 

The above item for repairs does not include the renewing 
of the brick lining to the rotary furnaces, which it is calculated 
will have to be done every six months, and would add another 
cent per 100 lbs. of ash to the cost of recovery. 

The small amount of coal used in the recovery not only 
burns off the ash, but, with the fuel contained in the ash, 
raises steam for all the Yaryan purposes, drives the small 
steam engines that turn the furnaces, and gives back for use 
in the mill as surplus steam about 25 per cent, of the steam 
raised in the boilers behind the furnaces. 

The cost of recovery in this mill, before the introduction 
of the Yaryan evaporator and rotary furnace, was as high as 
42 cents per 100 lbs. of ash by the old system of open pans 
and long furnaces. 

The following results, obtained by the author at Northfleet 
Paper Mills with a quadruple effect Yaryan evaporator, 
concentrating waste soda lyes from soda wood pulp manu- 
facture, after making reasonable allowances, resemble the 
results obtained by Wyatt, and established the well-known 
fact that a machine of this nature will evaporate on an average 
3-25 lbs. of water from and at 212° Fah. per pound of steam 
used. 

Economy of fuel in the recovery process lies wholly in the 
utilisation of the heat evolved from the combustion of the 
organic matter in the waste lyes, and from the coal fire used 
to start this combustion. When this is efficiently done a ton 
of ash can bo recovered with an expenditure of from 250 to 
600 lbs. of coal, assuming a quadruple evaporator to be 
employed and lyes of about 5° to 7° Twaddell. 



113 





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114 



COMPOSITION OF THE RECOVERED SODA AND 
LIQUORS. 

In English manufacturing practice the sulphate process is 
practically unknown, but on the Continent and Scandinavia 
Doth straw and wood pulps are prepared by it on an extensive 
scale. The difficulty in realising the process successfully lies 
principally in the preparation of the smelt, which should 
contain a large proportion of sulphide of sodium (Na 2 S). 
Instead of carbonate or caustic soda being used to make up 
the loss of alkali occurring in the manufacture, salt cake or 
crude sulphate of soda is mixed with the recovered ash, before 
the latter is calcined, and smelted together in specially 
constructed furnaces, whereby a smelt or recovered ash is 
obtained containing a large proportion of Na 2 S. Schacht 
gives the following as the composition of the final product 
in the recovery process, viz. : — Na„ C0 8 , 44-53 per cent. ; 
Na 2 Si0 8 , 6-00 per cent. ; Na 2 existing as Na OH, 4-65 
per cent. ; Na 2 S, 30-25 per cent. ; Na 2 S0 4 , 1-35 per cent, 
insoluble, 3-82 per cent. In this analysis, on 100 parts of 
total alkali (Na 2 O) obtained by direct titration with acid 
(which includes Na„ O as carbonate, silicate, caustic and 
sulphide), 50-7 parts are in combination as sulphide Na 2 S. 
It is obvious that this sulphate process is applicable equally 
to the preparation of paper pulp from esparto, bamboo, and 
other such like fibrous plants. 

Kir diner (Vol. Ill) gives a long series of analyses represent- 
ing the composition of the recovered ash and causticised liquor 
obtained in different works, of which the following are typical 
of Continental practice. 

Soda Process. — Dr. Goldberg. — Straw pulp factory in 
which commercial soda ash is used to replace the loss of alkali. 













In- 


Kind of Ash. 


Na, CO. 


NaOH 


Na., SO, 


SiO., 


soluble. 




0/ 

/o 


% 


/o 


/o 


% 


1. Once regenerated, 












with much carbon 


58-20 


5-50 


3-37 


11-10 


10-96 


2. More than once re- 












generated . . 


69 67 


11-92 


3-71 


1000 


3-06 


3. "White burnt ash . . 


73-49 


6-83 


3-20 


10-58 


0-94 


4. Many times regen- 












erated 


75-32 


1-79 


5-21 


10-08 


352 



More recently the same authority gives, for a recovered 
ash : Na„ CO.,, 55-67 per cent. ; Na OH, 3-74 per cent. ; 
Na 2 S, : 52 per cent. ; Si0 2 , 7-32 per cent. ; Na 2 S0 4 , 4-74 
per cent. ; insoluble, 1-55 per cent. The 7-32 per cent. Si0 2 
corresponds to 14-88 per cent. Na 2 Si0 3 . 

Fresh causticised lye made from this ash, of sp. gr. 1-079 
= 1<)^° Be., contained by direct determination per litre, 



115 



59-000 grammes of total alkali (Na, 0), 48-800 grammes 
Na OH, 0-785 grammes Si0 2 , 3-173 "grammes S0 3 , and 
3-893 grammes S0 3 , after oxidation of the sulphides present. 
From these figures he calculates that there are — 



NaOH 


48-640 grammes per litre. 


Na, C0 3 


.. 12-128 


Na, S 


0-156 


Na, SiO, 


1-832 


Na, S0 4 


5-632 



Another authority, whose name is not revealed, gives the 
following composition of caustic soda lyes in a straw pulp 
factory in which the same conditions prevail as the foregoing: — ■ 





Causticised Liquor. 


Grammes per Litre. 


Total alkali Na., C0 3 . . 
Caustic alkali (reckoned 
as Na, CO.,).. 


9698 

87-45 
9 53 


98-16 
80-88 


94-92 
85-15 


92-75 
85-33 


86-07 
81-62 


84-80 
75-26 


Na„ CO 


17-28 


9-77 


742 


4-45 


9-54 



These caustic lyes contained besides from 4 to 5 grammes 
Na, S0 4 , from 0-05 to 0-20 grammes Na, S, and about 0'5 
grammes Si O,, on an average, per litre. A large number of 
analyses of the recovered ash, by the same authority, gave 
73-14 per cent, of total alkali, reckoned as Na, CO s (of which 
6-89 per cent, existed as Na OH), 0-08 per cent, as Na, S, 
4-29 per cent. Na, S0 4 , and 2-74 per cent, as SiO,. 

In connection with the foregoing the lime sludge from the 
causticisms, after washing on the vacuum filter, gave on 
analysis : — (a) 70-09 per cent, water ; 22-20 per cent. 
Ca CO 3 ; 3-20 per cent. Ca (0H) 2 ; total alkali reckoned 
as Na, C0 3 , 0-57 per cent. (6) 68-09 per cent, water; 
22-19 per cent. Ca C0 3 ; 3-06 per cent. Ca (OH) 2 ; total 
alkali (Na, C0 3 ) 0-60 per cent; 0-52- per cent. Fe 2 3 and 
Al ,0 3 ; 3-00 per cent. SiO, and 0-08 per cent. P, 5 . (c) 
Dried Sludge. 80-20 per cent. Ca C0 3 ; 3-07 per cent. 
Na, CO, ; 1-75 per cent. Al 2 3 and Fe 3 3 ; 8-60 per cent, 
insoluble and 7-04 per cent, water and loss on gentle ignition. 

Sulphate Process. — According to W. Schacht and Dr. M. 
Muller both of whom have a wide experience with this process, 
the composition of the smelt or recovered soda obtained 
in both the straw and wood pulp manufacture, when sulphate 
of soda is used to make up the loss of alkali, is represented 
by the following analyses :— 



116 




co os *a o co go 



o o 

CO ^H 



I I 



I I I I I I I 



O O f-i i-h O CO 



O O o © Cl t- r- 


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rd 


ts sulphat 
arts sulph 
100 parts 
parts sulp 
on 


43 


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TB 


3 


a 


5 


r/3 


ft 


^ ft ri 

ftO °C1 


ft 


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Remarks. 


<*> t-co 

" H 1— 1 I— 1 


o o o o O CO t- 
2 cT lii t^ <£ -^ xo eo co 


1 2 

.3 ! £ 


ill 1 cb w i> oo c 


fl CO 

° 


co t- t- o o o © o m 

!>• © CO © © c_P »p CO CO 

© co co go © co cc -^ © 

GO (M CO CO ^ >-H l-H l-l r-H 


e at 15° 
NaOH 

E. 

61-40 
62-60 
64-00 

24-00 
63-00 
45-00 

80-60 

77-80 
87-8D 


| o 

^ ' eT 

1 fe; 


o — i © CO ^ oooow* 

2 9*r^ o 909999 

£ © co © t^ cc © 4* © ih © 

iJ ,— 1 CO 1— < £> co co co -* co 

M 1-5 


o 


A. — Straw Ce 
W. Schacht . . 

B. — Wood Cel 

Dahl 

Dr. M. Miiller 

W. Schacht ... '.'. 


Lime. 
Kilcs. 


Ml co co co 1 1 i 


Sulphate. 
Kilcs. 


1 1 1 SS2 1 1 1 


Smelt, 
Kilos. 


1 i 1 ££©■ 1 1 I 


6 


hc^m ** © i> 00 © 



118 



Taking an average of the first three analyses (1, 2, and 3) 
in the above table, which are fairly regular, the amount of 
Na 2 S on 100 alkali Na., obtained by direct titration with 
standard acid, is 35-12. The author obtains constantly 
liquors containing over 50 per cent of the total alkalinity 
in the form of sulphide of sodium, Na 2 S. The proportion of 
sulphide depends on the mode and apparatus used for reducing 
the Na 2 S0 4 to Na 2 S. Also, in the liquors 5 to 9 inclusive, 
there exists a large quantity of sulphite of sodium, Na Q S0 3 , 
which is due to the partial oxidation of the Na 2 S in the smelt, 
prior to causticising. 

In the soda wood pulp works using soda ash it is frequently 
necessary to ascertain the amount of ash contained in large 
volumes of black lyes, and the following table will be found 
useful for this purpose : — 

WASTE SODA LYES FROM WOOD PULP. 
TABLE showing grammes per litre of recovered ash from 

waste soda lyes from wood boiling at 15° Cent. 

{Practice of North German Wood Pulp Factory ) 







Grammes 




Degrees 


Specific 


(about) of 


!Sra 2 CO, in Ash. 


Baume. 


Gravity. 


Recovered Ash 






from 1 Litre. 




6 


1-045 


40-5 




7 


1052 


51-2 




8 


1-060 


61-9 




o 


1067 


71-5 




10 


1075 


81-0 




11 


1083 


89-1 




12 


1091 


97-2 




13 


1-100 


105-5 




14 


1-108 


113-5 




15 


1-116 


121-5 




16 


1-125 


130-0 


Many samples of 


17 


1-134 


138-5 


the recovered ash 


18 


1-142 


148-2 


established an 


19 


1-152 


1591 


average of 80 % 


20 


1-162 


170-0 


Na„ C0 3 = 


21 


1-171 


180-0 


44-8 % Na 2 O. 


22 


1-180 


190-0 




23 


1-190 


201-5 




24 


1-200 


212 




25 


1-210 


222-5 




26 


1-221 


233-2 




27 


1-231 


2440 




28 


1-241 


254-0 




29 


1-252 


264-2 




30 


1-263 


275-4 


(Kirchner, Vol. III.) 



119 

LOSS OF ALKALI. 
The losses of alkali (Na 2 -0) occurring in the manufacture of 
straw, esparto, and wood cellulose are chiefly the following :— 

(1) Chemical Losses. — Combination of the soda with 
silica and alumina contained in the plant and bricks of the 
furnaces to form silicate and aluminate of soda. These are 
subsequently decomposed in the causticiser. J. W. Kynaston 
has suggested the addition of bicarbonate of soda to the 
recovered ash liquor, whereby the silicate is decomposed 
thus :— 2 Na H C0 3 +Na 2 SiO s = 2 Na 2 C0 3 + SiO„ + H 2 0. 

(2) Mechanical Losses. — Leakages of every character; 
imperfect washing of the insoluble matter left after dissolving 
the recovered ash ; imperfect washing of the pulp and the 
lime sludge on vacuum filters. Volatilisation of the soda 
in the smelting furnaces. 

These losses amount in the aggregate to from 15 to 30 per 
cent, of the total soda put into the digester. In the wood 
pulp manufacture it should never be more than 15 to 20 
per cent, with well-designed plant. 

PREPARATION OF CAUSTIC SODA LYES. 

These should be prepared from the purest form of com- 
mercial soda, such as ammonia soda ash containing 58 per 
cent. Na 2 0, excepting in the case of the so-called " sulphate 
process, when the presence of Na 2 S0 4 , NaCl, &c, cannot 
be avoided. The carbonate of soda is converted into caustic 
by boiling with caustic lime, the lime being either added direct 
in lumps to the vessel called the " causticiser," in which the 
ash is dissolved in water, or previously made into a thick 
cream with water in a separate vessel, strained through a 
sieve, and then pumped into the " causticiser." 

The causticiser consists of a wrought-iron vessel fitted 
with an upright mechanical agitator to keep the fluid in 
motion, a drop syphon to run off the clear liquor, and a plug 
valve in the bottom to run off the residual lime. When the 
lime is added direct, it is placed in a perforated wrought-iron 
box called a cage, slung in the upper part of the causticiser, 
but when added in the form of a milk, the cage may be omitted. 

Three batches of liquor, each varying in density, can be 
made in the causticiser before running off the residual lime 
sludge. The first batch should not exceed 28° Twaddell, 
the second, to which only a small quantity of fresh lime is 
added, should be 18° Twaddell ; whilst the third, to which 
no fresh addition of lime, as a general rule, is required, need 
not exceed 10° Twaddell, all taken at 62° Fah. The foregoing 
densities refer to the carborated alkali liquor derived from 
either fresh or recovered ash. Each individual batch in the 



120 

eausticiser is boiled with an open steam pipe, both during and 
after the addition of the lime, and tested for the presence of 
C0 2 by filtering a small quantity of the liquor into a test tube 
and adding thereto a small quantity of a 10 per cent, aqueous 
solution of bichromate of potash, and then acidifying with 
HCL. If the whole of the soda has been converted into 
caustic, no appearance of escaping C0 2 will be visible. It 
is necessary to use K 2 Cr 2 O r in this test, as it oxidises anv 
sulphides, &c, present winch the acid would decompose and 
render visible by escaping H„S, thus vitiating the test for 
C0 2 . Obviously this is more especially necessary when 
causticising liquors in the " sulphate " process. After boiling 
in the eausticiser and the conversion of the carbonate to caustic 
has been completed, the agitator is stopped, the lime allowed 
to settle, and the clear liquor syphoned off into a reservoir. 
Fresh carbonated liquor and water are then added to make 
up a second charge of 18° Twaddell, and thoroughly boiled. 
If, after testing with acid as above, the carbonate is not all 
converted into caustic, more lime is added in slight excess, 
the liquor again boiled, allowed to settle, and when clear 
syphoned off as before. A third batch of about 10° Twaddell 
is then made, which will usually be found to require no 
addition of lime. When this is syphoned off, the lime sludge 
remaining in the eausticiser is washed by decantation several 
times with hot water, the washings being either added to the 
freshly causticised lye or run into a storage tank for use 
instead of water in the causticising operation. The lime 
sludge may be run off into a pit whose bottom is covered 
with ashes, or into a filter, the bed of which is about 12 inches 
thick and composed of varying sizes of limestone and coal 
ashes or clinker, the finer material being uppermost. The 
filter bed rests on a perforated wrought-iron false bottom, 
and frequently suction by means of a pump is applied below 
the false bottom to accelerate the filtration. Theoretically 
100 parts of Na 2 C0 3 require 52-83 parts CaO for complete 
causticisation. In practice under the best conditions from 
60 to 65 parts are required. 

Recovered ash and liquors derived from it are contaminated 
with more or less silicate of soda, depending upon the amount 
of silica contained in the raw fibrous plant treated (see page 
79). When the alkali Na„ C0 3 is prepared by the Le Blanc 
process, in which Na 2 S0 4 is roasted at a red heat with coal 
and limestone according to the reaction Na 2 S0 4 + Ca CO., 
+ 4 C = Na 2 C0 3 +'CaS + 4 CO, and subsequent lixi- 
viation of the ball soda in Shanks' vats, the crude carbonate 
of soda liquor contains Na 2 S and undecomposed Na„S0 4 , 
together with small quantities of Na CI. Also, in the 



121 



so-called " sulphate " process (applied to straw and wood), 
the loss of alkali is made good by addition of salt cake or 
crude Na 2 S0 4 to the thickened mass from the rotary roaster 
before throwing it into the smelter, and during the subsequent 
ignition the sulphate is reduced to sulphide. The liquor 
prepared from this " flux " contains large quantities of Na 2 S 
and undecomposed Na 2 S0 4 (see page 117). In both of these 
cases the liquors are causticised in the same way as described 
above. 

Lunge has investigated the transformation of carbonate of 
soda into caustic in aqueous solution by boiling with lime 
under ordinary atmospheric pressure, with the following 
results :■ — 



Before Causticising. 


After Causticising. 

Carbonate of Soda converted 

into Caustic. 


% Na 2 CO,,. 


Specific Gravity. 


Expt. No. 1. Expt. No. 2. 


2 
5 
10 
12 
14 
16 
20 


1-022 at 15° Cent, 
1-052 at 15° ., 
1-107 at 15° „ 
1-127 at 15° „ 
1-150 at 15° „ 
1-169 at 30° „ 
1-215 at 30° „ 


99-4% 
99-0% 
97-2% 
96-8% 
94-5% 
93-7% 
90-7% 


99-3% 
99-2% 

97-4% 
96-2% 
95-4% 
94-0% 

91-0% 



Similar experiments, but conducted at a temperature of 
148° to 153° Cent., gave :— 



Before Causticising. 


After Causticising. 

Carbonate of Soda converted 

into Caustic. 


% Na, CO.,. 


Specific Gravity. 


Expt. No. 1. Expt, No. 2. 


10 
12 
14 
16 
20 


1-107 at 15° Cent. 97-06% 
1-127 at 15° „ 96-35% 
1-150 at 15° „ 95-60% 
1-169 at 30° „ 95-40% 
1-215 at 30° „ 91-66% 
1 


97-5% 
96-8% 
96-6% 
94-8% 
91-61% 



122 



Obviously from the above (1) the percentage of carbonate 
of soda (Na 2 C0 3 ) transformed into caustic (Na OH) decreases 
as the Specific gravity of the solution increases ; and (2) 
increase of temperature during causticising (i.e., causticising 
the Na 3 C0 3 under pressure above that of the atmosphere) 
yields no advantage. 

For the preparation of five tons of caustic soda (77 per cent.) 
from ammonia ash per day, four causticisers are necessary, 
each of a capacity of 500 cubic feet. (See page 184 for 
Specific gravity of solutions of carbonate of soda.) 

The following table shows the influence of temperature 
from to 65° Cent, on the density (Be) of caustic soda lyes. 
TEMPERATURE IIST DEGREES CENTIGRADE. 






5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 


2-0 


1-9 


1-6 


1-4 


11 


1-0 


0-9 


0-6 


0-3 










_ 




3-8 


3-2 


2-9 


2-8 


2-5 


2-4 


23 


2-0 


1-7 


1-4 


11 


0-9 


04 


— 




4-6 


4-5 


43 


4-1 


3 9 


3-7 


3-5 


3-3 


30 


2-8 


2-5 


2-2 


1-9 


14 




5-9 


5-8 


5-5 


5-4 


5-1 


5-0 


49 


46 


4-4 


4-1 


3-9 


3-6 


3-1 


2-8 




7-3 


71 


6-9 


6-7 


6-4 


6-3 


62 


5-9 


5-6 


5-4 


5-1 


49 


4-5 


41 




86 


8-4 


8-2 


8-0 


7-8 


7-6 


7-5 


73 


7-0 


6-7 


64 


6-2 


5-8 


5-4 




9-9 


9-8 


9-5 


9-4 


91 


90 


8-9 


8-6 


8-3 


.8-0 


7-8 


7-5 


71 


6'7 


<"> 


11-1 


110 


10-8 


106 


104 


10-3 


101 


9-9 


9-6 


9-4 


91 


8-9 


8-4 


80 


ti 


12-3 


122 


12-0 


11-9 


11-6 


11-5 


11-4 


11-1 


10-9 


10-6 


104 


100 


9-8 


9-5 


~ 


13-6 


13-4 


13-3 


13 


12-8 


12-6 


12-4 


12-2 


121 


11-9 


11-5 


11-1 


10-9 


10-5 


»<14-9 


14-6 


14-5 


143 


140 


138 


13-5 


13-2 


13-0 


12-9 


12-7 


12-3 


120 


11-8 


8 


16-1 


15-9 


15'7 


15-4 


15-2 


15-0 


14-8 


14-5 


143 


14-0 


13-8 


13-4 


13 


12-7 


in 


173 


17*0 


16-8 


16-5 


16 3 


16-1 


15-9 


15-7 


155 


15-2 


150 


14-6 


143 


13-9 





18-4 


18-2 


18-0 


17*8 


17-5 


17-3 


17-0 


16-8 


165 


16-2 


16-0 


15-7 


15-4 


15-1 




19-4 


19-2 


19-0 


18-8 


18-6 


18-4 


18-2 


18-0 


17-8 


17-4 


17-1 


16-8 


165 


16-2 




204 


20-2 


200 


19-8 


195 


19-3 


19'1 


18*9 


18*6 


18-4 


18-2 


18-0 


17-6 


173 




21-6 


213 


21-2 


20-9 


20-5 


203 


201 


19-9 


19*6 


19-4 


19-2 


19-0 


18-7 


18-4 




227 


22-5 


22'2 


22-0 


21-7 


21-4 


21-2 


20-9 


20-7 


20 4 


20-2 


20 


19-7 


19-4 




23-7 


235 


23-2 


23-0 


22-7 


22-5 


223 


22-0 


2V8 


2V6 


21-3 


21-1 


20-8 


20-4 




24-7 


24-5 


24-2 


24-0 


23-7 


23*5 


23-3 


23-0 


22-8 


22-6 


22-4 


22-2 


220 


21-7 


25-7 


25-5 


25-2 


25-0 


24-7 


24-4 


243 


24-0 


23-8 


23-5 


23*2 


23-1 


22-9 


22-6 



Batjmk and Specific Gravity of Milk of Lime at 15° Cext. 

(Blattner.) 



Baume\ 


One Litre weighs 


One Litre contains 


Grammes. 


CaO Grammes. 


1 


1,007 


7-5 


2 


1,014 


16-5 


3 


1,022 


26-0 


4 


1,029 


360 


5 


1,037 


460 





1,045 


56-0 


7 


1,052 


65-0 


8 


1,060 


75-0 



123 



Baume anc 


Specific Gravity of Milk of Lime— Continued. 




One Litre weighs 


One Litre contains 


Baume 


Grammes. 


CaO Grammes, 


9 


1,067 


84-0 


10 


1,075 


94-0 


11 


1,083 


104-0 


12 


1,091 


1150 


13 


1,100 


126-0 


14 


1,108 


137-0 


15 


1,116 


148-0 


16 


1,125 


159-0 


17 


1,134 


1700 


18 


1,142 


1810 


19 


1,152 


193-0 


20 


1,162 


206-0 


21 • 


1,171 


218-0 


22 


1,180 


229-0 


23 


1,190 


242-0 


24 


1,200 


255-0 


25 


1,210 


268-0 


26 


1,220 


281-0 



MECHANICAL WOOD PULP MANUFACTURE. 

German Practice. 
(I. M. Voith, Papier Calender.) 

The pulp wood is peeled either by hand or b}^ machine, and 
cut into lengths suitable for the machines or grinders ; knots 
removed by boring if a particularly clean pulp is desired. 

The wood, if for white pulp, is conveyed direct to the grinders; 
if for " brown " pulp, it is taken to the boilers to be steamed. 
There are two systems of grinding distinguished by the terms 
" cross '*- grinding (querschliff), and "long" grinding (lang- 
schliff), according to the motion of the surface of the stone 
towards the wood fibres. Fine " cross " ground, short fibred 
pulp is suitable for nearly all purposes, whilst " long " ground 
pulp is more suitable for document, envelope and printing 
papers, and especially for cardboards. Cross grinders are 
built with horizontal and vertical shafts, the former being by 
far the more numerous. Vertical shaft grinders aie more 
suitable for powers of great height, so that the grinder alone 
can be fixed upon the turbine shaft. The stones vary in size 
from 1,200 to 1,500 mm. in diameter (48 to 60 inches), from 
440 to 580 mm. in breadth (18 to 24 inches), and revolve at a 
speed of from 150 to 180 revolutions per minute, according 



124 

to size. Long grinders (patent Schmidt) are built with 
horizontal shatt having two presses, which are actuated by 
a chain and weights raised and lowered by a winch arrangement. 
The stones are 1,000 mm. (39i inches) in diameter. Speed, 
220 to 240 revolutions per minute, and maximum power 
required = 30 H.P. per stone. 

The water required, including that for sorting (screening), 
&c, for — 

'' Cross" grinding = 500 litres (132 gallons) per minute 
per 100 H.P. 

''Long" grinding = 600 litres (159 gallons) per minute 
per 100 H.P. 
The stuff direct from the stones flows first through a coarse 
sieve which retains the coarse chips, then upon the sorting 
machines or screens. Voith's patent sorting machine has three 
sieves, the uppermost one acts as a rough sorter, and separates 
those particles that are too coarse for the raffineur. Special 
sorters are considered superfluous. The stuff retained by the 
middle and bottom sorters or sieves is collected in a stuff 
chest with mechanical agitator, common to all the sorting 
machines, and is then pumped up and fed regularly to the 
raffineur. The stones of this machine are 1,200 mm. (48 
inches) in diameter, and revolve 150 revolutions per minute. 
The pulp flowing from the raffineur is mixed with the freshly- 
ground wood and screened. The separation of the pulp from 
the water is now exclusively carried out with the pulp or 
" wet " machine. With one press roll, pulp containing 38 
per cent, of air-dry weight can be obtained, and with a second 
press roll 50 per cent, air-dry weight. The pulp may be scraped 
off the roll if desired. 

According to the size and arrangement of the pulp installa- 
tion one worker will prepare from 100 to 170 kilos (220 to 374 
lbs.) of air-dry pulp per 24 hours, including peeling the wood, 
attending the machines and packing. For the preparation of 
100 kilos (220 lbs.) packed air-dry pulp per 24 hours, there 
are required about— 

7 to 8 H.P. for '' cross " grinding, and 
6 „ 7 H.P. „ "long" 
100 kilos (220 lbs.) of air-dry pulp require 0-28 to 0-38 solid 
metre of wood (9-88 to 12-36 cubic feet). 

The necessary requirements for successful work are : — 
First : A driving power, usually water power, not under 60 
to 80 H.P., effective. Second : Convenient supply of wood, 
preferably spruce (white or black), also aspen. Fir (Scotch), 
poplar, and beech are less often used. Young freshly-cut 
stem wood, of 120 to 150 mm. diameter (4|- inches to 6 inches). 
Third : Cheap freights, cheap wood, and facilities for delivering 



125 

same by water or rail to factory, play an important part in 
the commercial success of the manufacture. Fourth : Pure 
water. Spring water is not absolutely necessary, but by its 
use exceptionally clean pulp is obtained. Fifth : Cheap 
labour. 

Another German authority (" E.N.." Papier Zeituv.g, 
August, 1892) gives the following : — Three grinders. Stones, 
1-25 metres diameter by 0-50 metres broad (49^ inches by 
20 inches), can be used down to 1 metre in diameter. All 
three stones are fixed on main shaft, which revolves 180 per 
minute. The pressure in accumulator for presses and spray 
pipes amounts to four atmospheres (CO lbs. per square inch). 
One turbine of 300 E.H.P. drives the whole installation, of 
which 280 E.H.P. are consumed by the grinders and 20 E.H.P. 
by the other machines, pumps, &c. The daily production 
amounts to 4 tons of air-dry pulp, equivalent to 24 tons per 
week of six days. ( 100 kilos of 220 lbs. air-dry pulp made per 24 
hours required 7 E.H.P.) Sixteen cubic metres (raummeters) 
of spruce pulp wood were used per day, or 4 cubic metres of 
peeled wood per ton of pulp, equivalent to 142 cubic feet, or 
1 jLth cord of 128 cubic feet. 

American Practice 
differs but slightly from the foregoing, the manufacture 
being of a less refined nature and substantially confined to 
"cross" grinding. In a mill having 20 grinders, each with 
stones of 50 inches in diameter by 18 inches wide, three 
hydraulic press boxes and consuming 250 E.H.P., the output 
is 75 to 80 tons, of 2,000 lbs. each, per 24 hours. What is 
known as " hot " grinding is, as a general rule, followed, 
that is, the pulp flowing from the stones has a temperature 
of about 125 to 130° Fah., the heat being produced by the 
friction caused by the pressure of the wood against the revolv- 
ing stone. No rafnneur is used to work up the screenings. 
Twenty suction screens of the Packer type are used for screening. 
The fineness of the pulp depends on the fineness of the slits in 
the screen plates. These are graded so that for fine papers 
a slit of Y^yths of an inch is employed ; for common " news " 
a slit of T1 Vt o-ths of an inch. The stuff from the grinders, 
properly diluted with water, is first allowed to flow over the 
finer plates, then over the others, and finally over plates having 
slits T ^o-ths of an inch wide. The fibre passing the last set 
of screens is returned to the original mass coming from the 
grinders. Everything that has not passed through the screens 
is allowed to flow into the river, and is lost. The power 
consumed per ton of pulp produced is substantially the same 
in both German and American works. The foregoing gives 
6-88 E.H.P. per 100 kilos (220 lbs.) of pulp made per 24 hours, 



126 

For "cross" grinding, the following figures may be given 
as representing average practice per ton (2,240 lbs.) of air-dry 
pulp per 24 hours.: — 

Power required = 72 E.H.P. 

Spruce pulp wood = 1^ to 1^ cords. 

Water = 100 to 200 thousand gallons. 

BROWN WOOD PULP. 

Brown paper made almost exclusively from wood con- 
stitutes an important branch of the paper trade in Germany 
and Scandinavia. Fry, it appears, was the first to attempt 
the manufacture of brown paper pulp from wood by simply 
subjecting it to the action of steam at a high temperature. 
For this purpose the wood chips were placed in large boilers, 
and heated with high pressure steam for several hours ; the 
temperature required being about 332° Fah., corresponding 
to a pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch above the atmosphere. 
The action of the steam upon the incrusting substances 
surrounding the fibre of the wood was not found to be very 
vigorous. Very little of these substances are, in fact, ren- 
dered soluble, but some of them are transformed into useful 
organic acids (acetic, &c. ), which, however, react on the 
shell of the boiler, causing inordinate wear and tear. In order 
to obviate this corrosive action of the acids, attempts have 
been made with greater or less success to steam the wood 
in the presence of an alkaline body such as lime, which com- 
bines with the organic acids forming compounds that exert 
no corrosive action on the boiler plate. When this system 
is carried out it is obvious that the acids or their compounds 
are lost. 

For many years past boilers constructed of wrought iron 
or steel plate, and covered inside with a coating of thin sheet 
copper, have been used for the purpose of preparing brown 
wood pulp. The inside coating of copper forms an acid- 
resisting lining, upon which the organic acids formed during 
the steaming process have practically no solvent action. 
These boilers are of considerable size, being, as a general 
rule, about 15 feet long by 6 feet in diameter, their total 
cubic capacity being about 425 cubic feet. As there is no 
necessity for them to revolve, they are of the horizontal 
stationary type. 

As the" wood is ground after being steamed in these boilers, 
it must, accordingly, be put into them in pieces to suit the 
grinding machines. This is done by two workmen, one of 
whom packs the pieces of wood in layers within the boiler, 
while the other passes them to him through one of the two man- 
holes placed at each end. Steam of about six; atmospheres. 



127 

(90 lbs.) is then admitted through a suitable valve, and the 
pressure, which is recorded by a steam gauge, maintained 
from 8 to 18 hours as the necessities of the case may be, or 
until the wood has been rendered soft and of a dark brown 
colour. The water condensed inside the boiler is allowed to 
flow away through a tap fixed at the bottom. The acid and 
oil products distilled from the wood are contained in this 
condensed water, and are usually collected together in a 
reservoir. The oil of turpentine, as it is commonly called, 
floats on the surface, and is separated from the water beneath 
by means of a ladle. It is very inflammable, and, because 
of its value, is sold. 

When the wood has been sufficiently steamed, the pressure 
is blown off, and the boiler filled and emptied three times 
with cold water, the object in view being twofold, viz. : — 
First, to cool the wood so that the workmen can easily remove 
it ; and, second, to wash it free from impurities, thus making it 
more suitable for the grinding machines. The boiler is then 
emptied by manual labour, the pieces being passed out through 
the manholes. 



128 
CHAPTER IV a 

COLOURED PAPERS. 

Chemical Properties op Paper-Making Fibres. 

Cotton. — Cotton is almost pure cellulose (C 6 H 10 O 5 ). In 
the raw state it contains about 5 per cent, of impurities, which 
are soluble to a certain extent in caustic or carbonate of soda. 
These impurities consist of pectic acid, brown colouring matter, 
cotton wax, fatty acids (margaric acids), and albuminous matter. 
Cellulose is closely allied in composition to starch glucose, 
starch, and dextrine (Sp. Gr. 1 50). It is insoluble in ordinary 
solvents— water, alcohol, &c. — but is soluble in ammoniacal 
solution of cupric hydrate. Cold dilute mineral acids have 
little or no action on it ; in the concentrated state they act 
injuriously upon the fibre, especially if heated. Concentrated 
sulphuric acid causes it to sw r ell up and form a gelatinous mass — 
the vegetable parchment of commerce — which is coloured blue 
with a solution of iodine. [Vegetable parchment has a greater 
affinity for the basic coal tar dyes than pure cotton.] If com- 
pletely disorganised by acids it is converted into what is known 
as hydro-cellulose. When steeped in a mixture of cold nitric 
and sulphuric acids it increases in weight, and is converted into 
gun-cotton of powerful explosive properties. When this is 
dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether, collodion is formed. 
Weak solutions of the alkalies, potash, and soda have little or 
no action upon cotton, but in the concentrated state they tender 
and otherwise destroy the fibre. Lime in water has little or no 
action upon the fibre, provided the cotton is immersed in the 
liquid. Any portion exposed to the air becomes much tendered 
by the oxidation of the fibre. Chlorine gas quickly tenders 
the fibre if exposed to sunlight. Hypochlorites (bleaching 
powder) tender cotton more or less rapidly, according to the 
strength and temperature of the solution, and the duration of 
their action. When these are used in the cold diluted state the 
action is inappreciable, and confined to the bleaching of the 
colouring matter. Cotton dipped in a solution of bleaching 
powder of 5° Twaddell, exposed to the air for an hour and then 
washed , exhibits an increased attraction for basic coal tar dyes, 
and possesses the property of decomposing normal salts of iron, 
alumina, &c. This remarkable change is due to the action of 
the hypochlorous acid liberated by the carbonic acid of the 
air. The cotton has become thereby changed to oxy-cellulose 
(Witz). With few exceptions colouring matters are not 
attracted by the cotton fT 
resorted to in dyeing it. 



129 

Linen. — The raw fibre is cleansed or purified by passing it 
through the various processes of retting, breaking, scutching, 
hackling, &c. It consists essentially of cellulose. In the raw 
state it contains from 15 to 30 per cent, of foreign substances, 
chiefly pectic acid. The action of various chemicals upon it is 
much the same as upon cotton, but generally speaking linen 
is more susceptible to disintegration under the influence of 
caustic alkalies, lime, and strong oxidising agents — e.g., chlorine, 
hypochlorites, &c. Great care must therefore be exercised in 
bleaching to preserve the strength of the fibre. Linen is more 
easily dyed than cotton. 

Jute. — Owing to its great strength is much admired as a 
paper-making fibre. The raw fibre is separated from the plant 
by processes similar to those employed in obtaining the flax 
fibre — viz., retting, beating, washing, &c. The jute fibre is not 
identical with, although closely allied to, cellulose, and hence it 
has been called " bastose" (Cross & Bevan). Acted upon by 
chiorine, and subsequently by a solution of sulphite of soda, a 
brilliant magenta colour is produced, a reaction similar to that 
obtained from tannin -mordanted cotton. Tannin-like bodies 
are distributed throughout the mass of the jute fibre, and hence 
it has a powerful attraction for basic coal tar dyes, and can be 
dyed direct by them. Alkalies dissolve the tannin bodies, 
leaving cellulose. When exposed in a damp state it is decom- 
posed into two groups of bodies — namely, acids of the pectic 
class and tannin-like substances. Acids, especially mineral 
acids, disintegrate jute at low temperatures. Chlorine and 
hypochlorites produce chlorinated compounds which are more 
or less partially removed by solutions of the alkalies. The 
Leykam-Josepthal process of bleaching jute is founded upon 
these reactions. Weak solutions of hypochlorites of lime bleach 
the fibre to a pale cream colour, at the same time oxidising 
it and forming compounds which decompose calcium salts. 
For this reason weak hypochlorite of soda yields better results 
than hypochlorite of lime. The loss of weight in bleaching 
varies from 2 to 8 per cent., according to the method used. 

The papermaker has to deal almost entirely with fibres of 
vegetable origin, very seldom wool being ixsed. In many cases 
these vegetable fibres are not in a physical condition to absorb 
dyes direct from aqueous solution. A chemical agent, called 
a "mordant," is therefore employed to fix the dye upon the 
fibre, or in some cases to develop the colour itself. Mordants 
are usually metallic salts, the oxides of which combine with 
the colouring principle of the dye to form insoluble coloured 
lakes. These lakes adhere to the surface of the fibres. The 
oxides or their basic salts may be fixed upon the surface of the 
fibre previous to dyeing it, or the coloured lake may be formed 
by itself, and then added to the pulp. The choice of a suitable 
mordant should be carefully made. 

9 



130 

The colouring of paper pulp can therefore be carried out in 
two ways : — 

1st — Dyeing the pulp by means of soluble dyes, or dye- 
stuff, with or without the use of mordants. 
2nd — Colouring the pulp with pigments and other 
mineral colours. 



DYEING PAPER PULP. 

Combination of Colours. 
Primary. Secondary. Tertiary. 

^ Orange. 

Purple. 





Green. ^ — -*^ Broken Green. 

The arrows point to the colour produced by mixing red 
and yellow, &c. 

Dyes may be divided into two great classes — namely (1), 
those which dye the pulp by themselves, called " substan- 
tive " dyes ; and (2) those that require the application of a 
chemical agent or mordant to produce the colour itself, 
called " adjective " dyes. The basic aniline dyes belong to the 
former class, whilst the vegetable dyes, logwood, fustic, 
quercitron, &c, and others of the aniline (acid) series of dyes 
belong to the latter. 

Substantive or Basic Dyes. — Of the aniline dyes of this 
series that will dye cotton fibre direct, i.e., without the 
intervention of a mordant, the following are the most 
important : — 

Water Blue. Safranine. 

Hochst Scarlet. Brilliant Green. 

Eosine. Malachite Green. 

Rose Bengal. Erythrosine. 

Magenta, Phloxine. 

Acid Brown. Methyl Violet. 

Adjective or Acid Dyes. — These are best used with a 
mordant. Mordants consist chiefly of metallic salts, and are 
added to the pulp in the engine before the addition of the dye. 
These salts are deposited with or without the aid of a precipi- 
tant or heat in a more or less modified state upon the 
surfaces of the fibres, rendering the latter capable of absorbing 
the colouring matter. Heat usually facilitates the deposition 
of the oxides, especially when the metallic mordants are pre- 



131 

viously rendered basic. The salts most commonly employed 
are those of aluminum, iron, copper, chromium, tin, and lead. 
The former of these, especially iron, require no precipitant to 
fix them upon the fibre, and most of them form different 
coloured lakes with the same dye. Thus in the case of the 
vegetable dye logwood there is formed — 

Grey and black precipitates with bichromate of potash and 
sulphate of iron. 

Violet precipitates with tin salts. 

Blue precipitates with sulphate of copper. 

Bluish-violet precipitates with alum or sulphate of alumina. 

Blue-black precipitates with alum or sulphate of alumina 
and bichromate of potash. 

The following are the most important and commonly used 
mordants : — 

Salts of alumina, potash alum, K 2 Al 2 4 S0 4 + 24 H 2 ; 
ammonia alum, (N H 4 ) 2 Al 2 4 SO 4+ 24 H 2 O ; sulphate of 
alumina, Al 2 3 (S0 4 ) + 50% Aq. These salts give an acid 
reaction with blue litmus paper, but can be rendered basic, or 
their acid character partly destroyed, by adding a weak solution 
of soda crystals to their hot solution till a slight permanent 
precipitate of hydrate of alumina is formed. Both potash and 
ammonia alum are met with in the market of great purity — i.e., 
freedom from iron ; sulphate of alumina occurs, on th,e other 
hand, in many degrees of purity. The chief impurity in all 
three is iron, and the presence of this may be ascertained by 
adding a drop of an aqueous solution of ferro-cyanide of 
potassium (yellow prussiate of potash) to one of the alum. If 
iron be present, the well-known blue colouration of Prussian 
blue will be formed. (For composition of the alums, &c, see 
page 183.) The alums are used most extensively for fixing 
vegetable dyes, more especially logwood, redwood, yellow- 
wood, quercitron, catechu. But these dyes are now seldom 
used, owing to the cheapness, great tintorial power, and great 
brilliancy of the aniline dyes. Kesinate of alumina — the body 
formed by precipitating resin soap (or size) with sulphate of 
alumina or alum — acts as an admirable mordant for both acid 
and basic coal tar dyes. The amount of resin soap should 
bear a definite ratio to the amount of dye-stuff — e.g., water 
blue and ponceau require 3 — 4 times, and crystal violet 
2^ times, their weight of resin in the form of soap for complete 
precipitation. The same holds good with regard to many of 
the vegetable dyes — e.#., quercitron — provided the stuff be kept 
faintly acid to litmus, by using an excess of sulphate of alumina. 
The following coal tar dyes are completely precipitated by 
alumina resin soap, and the back-water from the machine 



132 

should be practically colourless if the proper proportion of 
mordant and dye is used : — 

Cotton Scarlet. Mandarin. 

Roccelline. Orange II. 

Croceiu Orange. Metanil Yellow. 

Azoflavin Victoria Blue. 

Diphenylamine Orange. Induline. 

Indazine. Phosphine. 

Nigrosin. Bismarck Brown. 

Brilliant Crocein M. 
Acetate of alumina is recommended as a mordant for paper 
containing much mechanical wood. This mordant is prepared 
by the decomposition of alum, with acetate (sugar; of lead in 
aqueous solution, the proportions being 25 parts alum to 10 
parts of the lead salt. The clear solution is alone used, and if 
required it may be rendered basic by an addition of 5 per cent, 
of soda crystals dissolved in water. This is a good mordant for 
methyl violet, crocein scarlet, and crocein orange. 

Tin Salts. —Of these the so-called "tin crystals " (Stannous 
chloride) is the most universally used, both as a mordant and 
as a means of brightening the colours. Oxide of tin forms 
rich coloured lakes with logwood, cochineal, &c. ; it is, 
however, usually employed in conjunction with alum. Tin 
crystals with acetate of alumina is a good mordant for 
producing quercitron yellow. 

Iron Mordants. — Of these ferrous sulphate or green vitriol, 
and the so-called " nitrate " of iron, are the most common ; the 
former produces grey- blacks with catechu and logwood extract. 
Both are used for producing chamoise yellows, but the 
" nitrate " of iron is the most suitable for this purpose. Nitrate 
or acetate of iron yields better dark greys and blacks than the 
sulphate. 

Copper Mordants. — Sulphate of copper yields with log- 
wood extract blue coloured lakes which can only be applied 
for the production of unsized papers as the colour is changed 
to violet by alum. It may be used in combination with sul- 
phate of iron and bichromate of potash for the formation of 
brown, grey, and black colours. 

Tannin Mordants. — - Tannic acid (catechu) is used for 
greys and blacks, and yields these better than sulphate of iron. 
For fixing the mordant a high temperature must be employed. 
Tannic acid in combination with tartar emetic imparts a 
property to the fibre which causes the latter to absorb many 
of the coal tar dyes, the colours produced being brilliant in 
shade and fast towards light. Tannin and sodium acetate are 
applied to papers which have been only slightly sized, and are 
dyed with the basic coal tar dyes. For full deep shades tannin 



133 

is suitable for fuchsine, methyl violet, brilliant green, solid 
green, chrysodine, Manchester brown, Bismarck brown, and 
naphthol yellow. 

Lead Salts. — Acetate of lead is used for eosine, erythrosine, 
phosphine, phloxine, rose bengal, fluorescine, and orange ; also 
for water blue, ponceau, alkali blue, tropaoline, crocein, 
induline, nigrosine, metanil yellow. 

Nearly all the aniline dyes which are soluble in water can 
be used. In order to obtain good results the properties of the 
dye in respect to its affinity for the fibre should be observed, 
and the proper precipitant or mordant used. Heating the 
pulp facilitates the deposition of the dye, and is recommended 
for deep shades. Brilliant shades and pure colours, especially 
light tints, can only be obtained when the stuff in the beater 
has been primarily bleached to a pure white. The following 
dyes can be recommended : — 

Fuchsine or Magenta (3 per cent, solution) is dissolved in 
soft or condensed water— i.e., water free from lime salts — as the 
latter precipitates the dye. A little acetic or hydrochloric acid 
counteracts the act of the lime. This dye is extensively used 
for shading white papers, news, printings, &c. , and should be 
used very dilute. The solution should also be made daily 
and used cold. Paper-making fibres, especially mechanical 
wood, have a strong attraction for this colouring matter. 
Methyl violet, benzal, malachite, and brilliant greens (3 per 
cent, solution) should be treated like fuchsine (magenta). 

Metanil Yellow, Benzoflavine, Orange and Aura- 
mine, Kastainien Brown, &c. (10 per cent, solution) are 
added to the paper pulp as hot solutions, as the dve separates 
out on cooling. 

Water Blue and Cotton Blue (8-10 percent, solution) are 
dissolved in hot water, cooled, and then a little sulphuric acid 
(oil of vitriol) or acid sulphate of soda added, so as to develop 
the colour. Dye either hot or cold, but in either case the stuff 
must show a decided acid reaction with litmus paper by the 
use of an excess of alum or sulphate of alumina. 

Eosine (10-12 per cent, solution) should be used in a nearly 
neutral pulp. Excess of sulphate of alumina turns the shade 
yellowish brown. Acetate, or sugar of lead, yields a pink 
shade, whilst tin crystals produce a fiery red. 

Rose Bengal and Erythrosine (10 per cent, solution) 
behave like eosine. The dyeing can be carried out either 
before or after sizing, and either in the hot or cold state. 

Safranine, Turkey Red, Crocein, Indulin, Solid Blue, 
^Ethylene Blue, and Methylene Blue (8 per cent, solution) 



134 

require the paper stuff to be slightly acid in character. These 
dyes are best added to the engine before sizing. Safranine 
must be used in the cold, the others warm. 

Phosphine and Grenadine (5 per cent, solution) are 
treated like fuchsine or magenta. 

Alkali Blue (8 per cent, solution) is often used because 
of its greater fastness towards light. Dissolve the dye in hot 
water which has been rendered alkaline with soda, and then 
cool. The cold solution is very stable, but must be used dilute. 
Dye in the cold, and after sizing. The paper stuff must have 
an acid reaction. 

VEGETABLE DYE-STUFES.. 
Yellow. — Quercitron 'for light, shades is the colouring 
matter obtained from the bark of the North American black 
oak (Quercus nigra). The dye is extracted by digesting 
the bark, wrapped in a bag, in successive quantities of fresh 
water at 212° Eah. The liquors are then mixed and purified 
from tannin bodies by addition of a weak solution of glue, 
otherwise the shade is apt to be of a greenish tone due to the 
formation of black-coloured lakes by the tannin, with traces 
of iron salts contained in the alum, &c. Quercitron is 
best suited for deepening blacks, and for this purpose 
it is not necessary to remove the tannin. In combination 
with weld extract (1 pt. weld to 10 pts. quercitron) purer 
yellow tones are obtained. The shade in this case is brightened 
with tin crystals. Quercitron does not yield bright tones of 
yellow. Weld (reseda luteola) produces the most stable and 
brightest yellows of the vegetable dyes. The presence 
of iron salts imparts a greenish shade to the colour. 
Curcuma is not extensively used. Yellow or Brazil Wood 
yields yellows of a greenish shade, which also limits its 
application. Mordant with acetate and sulphate of alumina. 
Annatto. — This extract is prepared by digesting 10 lbs. of the 
dye-stuff in 30 gallons of boiling water, in which 10 lbs. of 
soda crystals have been previously dissolved. Filter through 
a linen bag. Excess of alkali intensifies the yellow colour, 
whilst a diminished quantity turns it red. Applicable in 
combination with weld and quercitron for golden yellow and 
orange tones. The pulp should be dyed first and alum added 
afterwards. Brighten with magenta, crocein scarlet, or orange. 

Red. — Red Wood, Ptrnambuco Wood, Sfc. These colouring 
matters are. not extensively used, owing to their fugitive 
character. They form red lakes with alumina, which are 
brightened with tin crystals. Cochineal. — This is really an 
animal dye, being the body of a female insect found in 
Central America. The large grey variety is the best. The 



135 

dye is extracted by boiling the cochineal repeatedly in water. 
Mordant with alum or sulphate of alumina. Al 3 3 produces 
beautiful carmine lakes with this colouring matter. Alkalies 
yield bluish shades, and therefore slight excess of alum should 
be used. Tin crystals yield pure tones, especially in 
combination with oxalic acid, the latter tending to produce 
yellowish shades. Another excellent preparation of cochineal 
is obtained by placing 20 parts of the ground dye in a large 
glass vessel, together with 60 parts of ammonia, and setting 
the whole aside for a few days in a warm room till the fluid 
thickens. Filter before use. This is used with greatest ad- 
vantage with alum and tartaric acid. Brighten with tin crystals. 

Blue. — Logwood is seldom or never used alone, but in 
conjunction with other colours, for the production of deep, 
dark blues. It is obtained in the form of extract. Mordant 
with sulphate of alumina. 

Browjs. — Catechu, in combination with sulphate of copper 
and bichromate of potash, is the most important vegetable dye 
for the production of browns — e.g., pure brown : 4 lbs. catechu, 
6 ozs. sulphate of copper, 1^ ozs. sal-ammoniac, the "stuff" 
being then heated to about 130° Fah., and finally 12 ozs. 
bichromate of potash, all on 100 lbs. paper. It is advan- 
tageous to heat the "stuff" before the addition of the 
bichromate. All thess salts should be previously dissolved in 
water before being added to the beater. 

Blacks are usually produced from logwood and catechu by 
the action of certain mordants and oxidising agents. Thus, 
on 100 pts. paper, 4 pts. catechu, \ pt. sulphate of copper, 
heat to 130—140° Fah., 1£ pts. bichromate of potash, 8 pts. 
sulphate of iron or 16 pts. acetate of iron. After the " stuff " 
has circulated in the beater, wash for a short time, and then 
colour with 8 pts. logwood extract and 1| pts. quercitron. 

Note. — Owing to the greater tintorial power and brighter 
shades of the aniline dyes, these vegetable dye stuffs are now 
seldom used, excepting in special cases — e.g., in the production 
of blacks, deep blues, and browns. 



Colouring Pulp with Lakes and Mineral Pigments.— 
Mineral pigments, as a rule, yield the most stable colours 
towards light and atmospheric influences, although they are 
not the most brilliant. Compound colours — e.g., green, orange, 
drabs, &c. — can all be produced by the admixture of mineral 
pigments, and some of them are very beautiful, in accordance 
with the purity of the pigments employed and the whiteness of 
the pulp. 



136 

The most important of the mineral pigments or lakes are for 
yellow. Chrome Yellow, produced by admixture of 
bichromate of potash and acetate or nitrate of lead. The 
shade may be varied from pale canary-yellow to deep orange, 
in proportion to the amount of lead salt used. The colour is 
stable to light. [Note. — Ultramarine should not be used 
Avith chrome yellow.J Ochres. — These vary greatly in 
shade, and yield chamoise yellows. Nitrate of iron yields the 
same colours, and occurs as a thick brown liquid, having the 
following composition:— Sp. gr. = 1-210 (= 42° Twad.)Fe 2 O a 
as Fe = 13-61 grms. per litre. Fe 2 O 3 = 168-00 grms. per litre. 
Total, 181-61. The ferric oxide exists asFe 3 3 (S0 4 ), and is 
therefore a normal salt. 

Red. — Venetian red — an oxide of iron — yields somewhat 
fiery red colours when used by itself. Shade may be changed 
to bluish-red with Prussian blue or ultramarine. The finest 
qualities of Venetian red yield bright colours on a white 
ground. 

Blue. — Ultramarine, the most extensively used coloured 
pigment by papermakers, occurs in a variety of shades, from 
greenish blue to reddish blue. In conjunction with cochineal 
or magenta it is used to produce a white from bleached 
paper stock, possessing a slightly yellow tint. It has great 
distributing power, and is suitable for compound shading with 
nearly all colours except chrome yellow (chromate of lead). 
It has a tendency to blacken these yellows. It is decomposed 
by acids, giving off sulphuretted hydrogen. The more stable 
kinds resist the action of tolerably strong solutions of alum or 
sulphate of alumina. Those samples that are more or less 
bleached by sulphate of alumina solutions should be avoided. 
The mineral is remarkably stable towards light and other 
atmospheric influences. 

Prussian Blue (Paste Blue).— As the name implies, this 
colour occurs as a paste having a deep bronze-blue lustre. It 
contains 65 to 66 per cent, water and 34 to 35 per cent, dry 
colour (at 212° Fah.). The shades of blue which it produces are 
inclined to greenish; this is counteracted, however, by addition 
of red. Also used with chrome yellow for greens. Paper pulp 
can be dyed Prussian blue for "mottled" papers by first 
mordanting the pulp with iron (preferably " nitrate " of iron), 
and then adding yellow prussiate of potash with alum. The 
colour is brightened with addition of bleach liquor and a little 
oil of vitriol. The deposition of the iron on the pulp, and 
subsequent formation of the blue, is facilitated by heating to 
120 or 140° Fah. The dyed pulp should be well washed 
before using it for " mottled " papers. 



137 

Browns. — Paste Umber yields dark brown shades. It has 
the following composition : — Moisture 24 - 88 per cent., ferric- 
oxide, &c. , 41*88 per cent., loss on ignition 5'04, insoluble (in 
HC1) 28*20 per cent. It is essentially a hydrated oxide of iron, 
mixed more or less with organic matter. It is used extensively 
for brown papers. Manganese brown can be prepared by the 
use of sulphate of manganese, and subsequent addition of 
bleach liquor, and final washing before sizing. The depth of 
shade produced is in proportion to the amount of sulphate of 
manganese used. The colour is fairly stable towards light. 



138 



CHAPTER V. 



GENERAL PAPER MILL ANALYSES. 



ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND SYMBOLS 


OF 


THE 


MOST IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 


Element. 


Symbol. 


Atomic 

Weight. 


Element 


Symbol. 


Atomic 
Weight. 


Aluminium... 


Al 


27-1 


Molybdenum 


Mo 


96 


Antimony ... 


Sb 


120 


Nickel 


Ni 


58-7 


Arsenic 


As 


75 


Niobium 


Nb 


94 


Barium 


Ba 


137-4 


Nitrogen 


N 


14 


Bismuth 


Bi 


208 


Osmium 


Os 


191 


Boron 


B 


11 


Oxygen 


O 


16 


Bromine 


Br 


80 


Palladium ... 


Pd 


106 


Cadmium ... 


Cd 


112 


Phosphorus... 


P 


31 


Cassium 


Cs 


133 


Platinum . . . 


Pt 


194-8 


Calcium 


Ca 


40 


Potassium ... 


K 


39 


Carbon 


C 


12 


Rhodium ... 


Rh 


103 


Cerium 


Ce 


140 


Rubidium ... 


Rb 


85-4 


Chlorine 


CI 


35-5 


Ruthenium . . . 


Ru 


101-7 


Chromium ... 


Cr 


52 


Scandium ... 


Sc 


44 


Cobalt 


Co 


59 


Selenium ... 


Se 


79 


Copper 


Cu 


63-G 


Silver 


Ag 


108 


Didymium ... 


D 


144 


Silicon 


Si 


28 


Erbium 


E 


170-6 


Sodium 


Na 


23 


Eluorine 


F 


19 


Strontium ... 


Sr 


87-5 


Gallium 


Ga 


69-6 


Sulphur 


S 


32 


Gold 


Au 


197 


Tellurium . . . 


Te 


127 


Hydrogen ... 


H 


1 


Thallium ... 


Tl 


204 


Indium 


In 


113 


Thorium 


Th 


231-5 


Iodine 


I 


127 


Tin 


Sn 


118-5 


Iridium 


Ir 


193 


Titanium ... 


Ti 


48 


Iron 


Fe 


56 


Tungsten ... 


W 


183-4 


Lanthanum... 


La 


139 


Uranium 


u 


240 


Lead 


Fb 


207 


Vanadium ... 


V 


51 


Lithium 


Li 


7 


Yttrium 


Y 


89 


Magnesium.. 


Mg 


24 


Zinc 


Zn 


654 


Manganese ... 


Mn 


55 


Zirconium ... 


Zr 


906 


Mercury 


Hg 


200 









139 



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144 



ALKALIMETKY. 

The principle upon which alkalimetry is based, is the 
neutralization of the alkali with an acid. The acid commonly 
used for this purpose is sulphuric acid, H 2 S0 4 . Thus, in the 
case of determining the alkali or soda (Na 2 0) in alkaline soda 
products — e.g., soda ash, the following chemical reaction 
takes place:— Na 3 CO s + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + H 2 + C0 2 . 
That is to say, one equivalent, or 98 parts of sulphuric acid, 
combines with or exactly neutralizes one equivalent, or 62 
parts of soda (Na 2 O). 'ihe method is applicable to alkaline 
soda products, such as carbonate, caustic, and silicate of soda. 

Preparation of a solution of sulphuric acid of known neu- 
tralizing power. According to the above equations, one 
gramme — equivalent of H 2 S0 4 (98) — will exactly neutralize 
one gramme — equivalent of soda Na 2 O (62). If, therefore, 
a solution of the acid be made up so that 1 litre of it will 
contain exactly 98 grammes of H 2 S0 4 , it follows that 1 c.c. 
of this solution will contain T §fhy II 2 S() 4 , and be capable 
of exactly neutralizing T Mo> or 0*062 gramme Na 2 O. 
Such a solution of sulphuric acid is known as "normal" sul- 
phuric acid. Many workers prefer, however, to use a 
solution containing one half of a gramme — equivalent, or 
49 grammes of H 2 S0 4 to the litre, which is called "half- 
normal " sulphuric acid, each c.c. of which will exactly neu- 
tralize 0-031 gramme Na 2 0. This solution we recommend 
for general use. It is made as follows : — 56 grammes of pure 
concentrated sulphuric acid are diluted with 500 c.cs. of cold 
distilled water, care being taken to pour the acid into the 
water, and not vice versa. The mixture is set aside to cool to 
the normal temperature — viz., 62° Eah., and when cold it is 
made up to 1,100 c.cs. by volume with cold water and 
thoroughly mixed. One litre (1,000 c.cs.) of this fluid will 
contain more than 49 grammes H 9 S0 4 , and it is now 
necessary to determine its exact strength, in order that it may 
be diluted to exact " half normal strength." This is done by 
ascertaining how many c.cs. of the mixture are required to 
neutralize the Na 2 O contained in a known weight of pure 
Na 2 CO 3 , as follows: — A small quantity of guaranteed pure 
carbonate of soda is placed in a porcelain crucible and ignited, 
till perfectly dry, over the flame of a spirit lamp. It is then 
cooled in the desiccator, and 5'3 grammes of the cold dry soda 
salt, weighed off, transferred to a flat porcelain dish or glass 
flask, and dissolved in luke warm water. The alkaline fluid is 
now coloured with a few drops of neutral litmus solution, and 
the diluted acid cautiously added from a burette till the blue 
colour is changed to reddish violet. While the acid is being 
added an effervescence, more or less violent, will take place 



145 

due to the evolution of carbonic acid gas C0 2 , and as this is 
partly held in solution it is necessary to boil the mixture to 
expel it. After boiling, the blue colour will reappear, and 
additional portions of the acid must be run in with subsequent 
boiling after each addition, until finally one drop is found 
sufficient to turn the blue colour to a permanent red. The 
whole of the soda — viz., 3T grammes contained in the 5-3 
grammes of the pure carbonate — is now converted into sul- 
phate of soda, Na„ S0 4 , and as the 5-3 grammes, Na„ C0 3 , 
will, according to the above equation, exactly neutralize 4'9 
grammes of H 2 S0 4 , it follows that the number of c.cs. of the 
diluted acid used from the burette will contain 4*9 grammes 
H 2 S0 4 . We will assume the quantity of diluted acid used to 
be 98-2 c.cs., in order to show the method of adjusting its 
strength with water, so as to obtain "half normal acid." 

By ordinary proportion we have 93*2 : 4-9 : : 1,000 : 49-89. 
That is, one litre of the diluted acid contains 49'89 grammes 
H 2 S0 4 , or 0'89 gramme too much. The quantity of water 
required to dilute it to the precise strength is found thus: — 
49 : 100 : : 49'89 : 1,018-1. That is to say, 18-1 c.cs. of cold 
water must be added to every litre of the diluted acid. The 
acid thus made is preserved in well stoppered bottles for future 
use. It should be labelled "half normal H 3 S0 4 ." One c.c. 
of this acid is equal to 0-031 grammes Na 2 O. 

Note. — Before finally adjusting the strength of the acid, it 
is always advisable to test it twice or thrice with pureNa 2 C0 3 , 
and to take the mean of the tests as representing its true 
value. 

Valuation of Soda Ash, Caustic Soda, &c, and in all 
products in which the soda exists as carbonate or caustic. 
The value of soda ash and caustic sodas depends upon the 
amount of available soda they contain. 3*1 grammes of the ash 
or caustic are weighed off, and transferred to a flask containing 
about 100 c.cs. of distilled water. After the contents of the 
flask have been heated and coloured blue by the addition 
of a few drops of neutral litmus solution, the half normal 
sulphuric acid is added from a burette, and the titration carried 
out as above described. The number of c.cs. of acid required 
to change the colour of the solution to permanent red repre- 
sents the percentage of available soda (Na 2 O) in the sample. 

In addition to available alkali (Na 2 O), alkaline liquors, 
recovered ash, as well as caustic sodas, contain other salts, the 
quantities of which it is frequently desirable to ascertain. Of 
these salt?, sulphate, chloride and silicate of soda are the most 
important. Silicate of soda occurs in all liquors made from 
recovered ash from esparto and straw boiling, but not to any 
great extent from wood pulp manufacture. Sulphide of 

10 



146 

sodium not infrequently exists in large quantity in liquors 
made from recovered ash, and especially in the " smelt " from 
the so-called "sulphate " wood pulp process. 

These salts may be estimated in the following manner : — 
10 grammes of the ash are dissolved in hot water and filtered 
through a tared (or weighed) filter into a 500 c,c. flask, the 
insoluble matter collected in the filter as also the filter itself 
and beaker glass in which the ash is dissolved, all being 
thoroughly washed with hot water. The washings are, of 
course, collected in the graduated flask. The clear filtrate is 
shaken, allowed to cool, and then diluted with cold distilled 
water to the graduated mark on the neck — i.e., the volume 
is made up to exactly 500 c.cs. When this fluid is mixed it 
is ready for use. For convenience we will call it "A." The 
filter and contents are dried at 212° Fah.in a water oven and 
weighed. Deduct the tare of the filter paper, multiply by 
10 = % of insoluble matter. 

Sulphate of Soda. — Withdraw 50 c.cs. of the fluid equal 
to one gramme of the ash from the flask by means of a pipette 
and place in a beaker glass, add a few drops of a clear 
solution of bleaching powder, then acidify with 5 c.cs. of pure 
hydrochloric acid, and boil gently till all free chlorine has 
been expelled. The bleaching powder or hypochlorite solution 
oxidises any sulphide of sodium present. When all chlorine 
has been expelled, a clear concentrated solution of barium 
chloride is added in slight excess, and the whole mixture set 
aside in a warm place (on a sand plate kept hot by a lamp 
flame) for two or three hours. The precipitate of barium 
sulphate is then collected in a filter in the usual May, and 
washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. Multiply the weight of 
the precipitate by 0*6098 and then by 100 = % of sulphide and 
sulphate of soda in the ash, expressed in terms of sulphate. 
When the sulphide of sodium exists in large quantity, and it 
is desired to know the percentage, proceed as described in 
page 159. 

Chloride of Sodium (Na CI). — This is best estimated 
volumetrically by means of a T V tn normal solution of nitrate 
of silver, according to the reaction Ag. N0 3 -f- Na CI = 
AgCl + NaNO s . 

Preparation of ^ 5 th Normal Ag N0 3 Solution. — 
Seventeen grammes of pure crystallised nitrate of silver are 
dissolved in pure cold distilled water, and the solution made 
up to exactly one litre. One c.c. of this fluid is capable of pre- 
cipitating 0*00585 gramme Na CI. 

To estimate the Na CI, 50 c.cs. of the liquor "A" are 
transferred to a clean porcelain dish, acidified with pure nitric 
acid, and then evaporated to complete dryness in a water bath 



147 

The residue is lixiviated in water, the fluid filtered into a clean 
beaker glass, and the dish and filter washed as usual. Two or 
three drops of a concentrated solution of chrornate of potash 
are added to the filtrate, and then the T \yth normal nitrate of 
silver from a burette is cautiously poured in, constantly 
stirring the while till one drop changes the colour of the 
mixture from pale yellow to a reddish orange. The number 
of c.cs. of x^tb normal Ag N0 3 solution taken, multiplied 
by 0-00585 x 100= % of JS T a CI in the sample. 

Silica or Silicate of Soda. — 200 c.cs. of solution "A" 
are transferred to a porcelain basin and carefully acidified with 
pure hydrochloric acid. The solution is then evaporated to 
dryness in a water bath, and the residue left in the dish again 
drenched with H CI, and a second time evaporated. It is 
finally heated for an hour or so in an air bath at 260° or 270° 
Fah., and then lixiviated in dilute H CI (10 pei cent, solution) 
with the aid of heat. The Silica (Si 0„) will then be in an 
insoluble state. Filter off the precipitate, and thoroughly wash 
with hot distilled water till the washings from the filter are 
free from chlorides. Dry the filter and its contents, ignite 
and weigh the Si0 2 , The weight multiplied by 25 — % silica 
in the sample. 

Note. — For the purpose of daily comparison, the quantities 
of sodium sulphate, sulphide, chloride and silica are fre- 
quently expressed on 25 or 50 parts of alkali (Na 2 O). In 
this way any change in the composition of the liquors can be 
detected at once. 



ACIDIMETRY 

Is the reverse of alkalimetry — that is to say, acids are estimated 
by standard alkaline solution, caustic soda being most commonly 
used. 

Standard Caustic Soda Solution. — The strength of this 
solution should be such that 1 c.c. of it will exactly neutralize 
one c.c. of half normal sulphuric acid (see paae ), and therefore 
it is "half normal caustic soda" — i.e., one litre should contain 
half an equivalent or 31 grammes of soda, Na 2 O. It is made 
up as follows : — Dissolve 50 grammes of pure caustic soda in 
500 c.cs. distilled water, cool, and then dilute to 1,100 c.cs. 
Draw off 50 c.cs. with a pipette, transfer to a porcelain dish, 
add a few drops of neutral litmus, and then titrate with half- 
normal sulphuric acid till one drop of the latter changes the 
litmus to red. If the caustic soda is free from carbonate the 
transition from blue to red should be decided. The number of 



148 

c.cs. of ^ H 2 S0 4 taken represents the extent to which every 
50 c.cs. of the caustic soda solution must be diluted. Assuming, 
by way of example, that 60 c.cs. of half-normal acid were 
required to produce the change of colour, or neutralise the 
soda, then 50 c.cs. of the caustic soda will require to be diluted 
to 60 ccs. or 1,000 c.cs. to 1,200 c.cs. 



BISULPHITE OF LIME, SODA, OR MAGNESIA 

In the sulphite wood pulp manufacture, the " bisulphite 
liquors should be tested for percentage of " free " and 
" combined " S 2 . This is done by first estimating the total 
S 3 with yLth normal iodine, and deducting from this result 
the amount of " free " acid ascertained by titration with -J^th 
normal soda (1 c.c. = 0-0031 Na 2 0). 

Preparation of " t Vth Normal Iodine." — Weigh off 
12-7 grammes of pure resublimed iodine and 25 grammes of 
pure iodide of potassium, and place both in a beaker glass. 
Dissolve in 250 c.cs. or so of cold water by continued agitation 
When the whole of the iodine is dissolved, transfer the solu- 
tion to a litre flask, and make up the volume to 1,000 c.cs. 
According to the reaction I a + S0 2 + 2 H 3 O = 2 H I + H„ S0 4 , 
two equivalents, or 254 parts iodine, are equal to one equivalent, 
or 64 parts of S 2 . Therefore, 12*7 parts iodine are equal to 
3-2 parts S0 o . One c.c. of the ^th normal iodine is equal to 
0-0032 SO,/ 

(a) Total S0 2 . — Dilute 10 c.cs. of the "bisulphite" 
liquor to 100 c.cs. with water, mix and withdraw 10 c.cs. 
{— 1 c.c of the original liquor) of the solution with a pipette, 
and transfer to a small flask containing about 100 c.cs. water. 
Now add a few drops of a solution of starch, and then the 
iodine from a burette, till a pale permanent blue colour of 
iodide of starch is formed. This solution is kept for the 
" free " acid test, as described below. The number of c.cs. 
of iodine consumed multiplied by 0-0032 x 100 =: % of total 
S0 3 by volume in the bisulphite liquor. 

(6) Free S0 2 . — The fluid in the flask from "a," after 
the above test is performed, is decolorised with a drop of the 
weak solution of the bisulphite liquor, then a drop of a 5 per 
cent, solution of phenolphthaline in alcohol added, and the 
amount of acid found by titration with -J^h normal caustic 
soda (100 c.cs. of half normal caustic soda made up to 1,000 c. cs. 
by volume with water). The fluid turns pink whenever an 
excess of alkali is present. By deducting the number of c.cs. 
of iodine found in " a " from the number of ccs. of soda found 



149 

in "6," and multiplying the remainder by 0'0032 x 100. the 
percentage of free S 2 is obtained. 

The base — i.e., lime soda or magnesia— is usually found by 
calculation from the percentage of combined S 0. 3 found above. 
Thus, by multiplying percentage of combined S 2 by 0*875, 
the amount of lime (Ca O) in combination with the S 2 will 
be obtained. 

(c) Lime as Base. — If it be desired to ascertain the 
amount of lime (Ca 0) by actual test in solutions of bistilphite 
of lime, 5 c.cs. of the strong liquor are transferred to a flask, 
diluted with a 100 c.cs. or so of water, and ammonium hydrate 
added in slight excess. The ammonia precipitates the Ca S O s . 
The mixture is then gently boiled till all smell of ammonia 
has disappeared, the precipitated Ca SO s filtered off, and 
washed with hot water, and finally transferred, together with 
tbe filter paper, to a beaker glass containing about 250 c.cs. of 
water, and after acidifying with 5 c.cs. of acetic acid, titrating 
with T \yth normal iodine. Number of c.cs. of iodine consumed 
multiplied by 0-0028 x 20 will give the percentage by 
volume of Ca O or " lime-base." 

(cl) Soda as Base. — The percentage of combined S0 2 
found in pure solutions of bisulphite of soda multiplied by 
0'969 will give the percentage of Na 2 O as " soda-base." 

(e) Magnesia as Base. — The percentage of combined 

S0 2 found in pure solutions of bisulphite of magnesia 

multiplied by OM325 will give the percentage of Mg O as 
" magnesia-base." 



DETERMINATION OF S0 o IN GASES FROM 

SULPHUR OR PYRITES KILNS. 

Reich's Method. 

The percentage by volume of S0 2 in these gases is best 
ascertained as follows, with the aid of tne apparatus shown 
in the accompanying sketch. Ten c.cs. of T \jth normal 
iodine is placed in /;, together with 100 c.cs. Avater, a few 
drops of starch solution, and a pinch of bicarbonate of soda. 
The bottle aspirator c is filled with water, and the syphon pipe 
a set '' by suckiog the water past the pinch cock d. The tube (a) 
is then inserted into the pipe conveying the gases from the 
sulphur or pyrites kilns, and by opening the pinch cock on the 
syphon arm the kiln gases are drawn through the iodine solution 
in b, where the S 2 is absorbed. Instantly the blue colour 
in b disappears the pinch cock is closed. Before beginning 
the operation the measuring glass should be empty, but the 
water caught in it during the test is a direct measure of the 
amount of air which has passed through the iodine solution 



150 



in b. We will call this volume of air x. The 10 c.cs. of iodine 
correspond to 11-14 c.cs. of gaseous S 2 , and by adding this to 
x we obtain the total volume of gases which passed into o. 
The percentage volume of S 0„ is therefore found thus— 

11-14x100 



-^T~, — TT~rp =% S o by volume in kiln gases. 




DETERMINATION OF FREE RESIN, ETC., 
IN RESIN SIZE. 

Dr. Soheupelen's Method. 

(a) Free Resin. — 100 c.cs. of the cold sizing liquor are 
taken and mixed with about 25 c.cs. of sulphuric ether in a 
separating funnel of vase-like shape, and well shaken for a 
minute. After standing for a little the liquor will separate into 
two sharply defined layers. The ether will have completely 
taken up the milky free resin and assumed a brownish colour, 
while underneath, the aqueous layerwill be perfectly clear. This 
contains the dissolved soda and resin soap, of which not a trace 
has passed into the ether solution. A separation of the two 
liquids can be easily made by the funnel. The aqueous solution 
is first run off into a small alembic, and set aside for treatment 
as at b, and then the ether into a previously Aveighed cup or 
small flask, according as the ether is to be evaporated or 
dbtilled. 

The ether part is then heated in a Avater bath till all the 
ether has been expelled. The residue is then melted, dried, 
and weighed. The weight represents the amount of free resin 
in the 100 c.cs. of size liquor taken. 



151 

(b) Combined or Saponified Resin. — The aqueous 
solution containing the resin soap and free soda is acidified 
with dilute H CI. or, better still, acetic acid. The acid which 
combines with the soda, causes a precipitation of free resin 
in the form of flakes. This, as in the previous case, is deter- 
mined by shaking up with ether, &c. , as in a. The weight 
thus obtained represents the resin existing in the size as resin 
soap. It is best to add the ether to the solution before 
acidifying. The sum of a and b represents the total resin, 
but, as a check, the total resin can be estimated by acidifying 
100 c.cs. of the sizing liquor and proceeding as in a. 

Note. — If starch is present in the size, some precautionary 
measures must be taken. In analysing the resin liquor the 
ether liquor does not separate so readily from the watery part, 
but, by adding a few grains of table salt and shaking, the 
separation ensues at once. 



BLEACHING POWDER AND BLEACH LIQUORS. 

The value of a bleaching powder or bleach liquor depends 
upon the amount of available chlorine it contains. Penot's 
method of analysis is most frequently used, and is based upon 
the following reaction : — 

As 2 3 + Ca (CI 0) 2 = As 2 5 + Ca Cl 2 
Alkaline arsenite is converted into arsenate by the bleaching 
powder. The end of the reaction is indicated with potassium 
iodide and starch. One equivalent of As 2 3 are equal to two 
of or four of CI. 

Preparation of Alkaline Arsenite. — 4*95 grammes of 
pure resublimed arsenious acid are dissolved by gently boiling 
in 200 c.cs. of water containing 25 grammes of crystallised 
carbonate of soda. When the As 3 3 is dissolved and the 
solution cooled, make up the volume to exactly one litre. 
One c.c. of this solution is equivalent to 0-00355 CI. 

Preparation op Iodo Starch. — Three grammes of wheat 
starch rubbed into a cream with a little water, and then 
poured into 200 c.cs. of warm water. Heat, with constant 
stirring, till the mixture boils. Add 1 gramme of potassium 
iodide, and dilute to ^ a litre. 

Iodide and Starch Test Papers are made by dipping 
strips of Swedish filter paper in the above mixture, and drying 
in a pure atmosphere. 

The Valuation op Bleach. — Weigh off 3 *55 grammes of the 
sample, place in a small porcelain mortar, and rub in water to 
a thin cream. Transfer to a litre flask, and make up the volume 



152 

to one litre. Mix, and while the solution is still cloudy draw 
off 100 c.cs. of the fluid (corresponding to 0355 grammes dry 
bleaching powder) and place in a beaker. Dilute with a 
further addition of 100 c.cs. water. Now pour in the standard 
solution of arsenite of soda, stirring meanwhile till one drop 
transferred with a glass rod to a piece of the iodide and starch 
test papers does not produce a blue colouration. The number 
of c.cs. of standard arsenic solution consumed is directly 
equivalent to the percentage of available chlorine in the 
sample — e.g., if 35*4: c.cs. are consumed, then the percentage 
of available chlorine in the sample is 35'4. 

Bleach liquors are tested for available chlorine ia the same 
way, but the final calculation is made in accordance with the 
volume of bleach liquor used, and the value of the arsenite 
solution, in terms of available chlorine. Thus, if 5 c.cs. of bleach 
liquor be diluted with 200 c.cs. of water, and the arsenite 
solution run in till the blue iodide of starch ceases to be formed 
on the test papers, the number of c.cs. run off multiplied by 
"00355 x 20 will give the percentage by volume of available 
chlorine in the liquor. 

To obtain grammes available chlorine per litre x 10. 

To obtain grammes 35 per cent, bleaching powder per litre 
x grammes available chlorine bv 10, then by 100, and divide 
by 35. 



EXAMINATION OF ULTRAMARINE. 

Samples of ultramarine should bs compared with a standard 
sample when examining them for shade. Small portions of 
the samples are placed side by side upon a sheet of white 
paper, and after folding the paper over and flattening them 
are compared for shade. 

Colouring Power. — This is usually ascertained by mixing 
the ultramarine with china clay or pearl hardening, and noting 
the depth of shade which it yields. The amount of ultramarine 
taken should be in proportion to its price. Thus, two 
samples, a and b, each costing, say, 50s. aud 40s. respectively 
per cwt., are examined against a standard sample costing 45s. 
per cwt., as follows: — - 40 grammes of a, 0-50 grammes ot b, and 
045 grammes of the "standard" are each mixed separately 
with 25 grammes of china clay or pearl hardening, and the 
depth of shade compared. The sample yielding the deepest 
shade of blue is the best value. 

Their Power to Withstand Acids. — Ultramarines for 
paper manufacture should not be readily decomposed by weak 
acids. To ascertain this a weighed portion of the sample is 



153 

shaken up in a clear glass bottle with a solution of oxalic acid, 
containing 50 grammes of the crystallized acid per litre. This 
is compared with an equal weight of the standard sample 
treated in a precisely similar way. 

Its Power to Withstand Alum or Sulphate of 
Alumina. — The sample is submitted to the same treatment 
as the foregoing, but instead of a solution of oxalic acid a 
solution of alum or sulphate of alumina is used, containing 50 
grammes of the salt to the litre. Both acids and alums have 
the property of decomposing and decolourizing ultramarines. 

ALUM AND SULPHATE OF ALUMINA, ALUMINOUS 
CAKES, AND ALUMINO -FERRIC CAKE. 

Aluminous Cake is prepared from finely ground calcined 
china clay and sulphuric ac^d. The china clay, as free from 
iron and undecomposed rock as possible, is calcined in a 
reverberatory or muffle furnace to expel the combined water, 
and after being withdrawn is cooled, ground to a fine powder 
and sieved. The sieved clay is then mixed with an equivalent 
quantity of oil of vitriol of Sp. gr. 1-615 in a mixing vessel, 
enough water being added to reduce the oil of vitriol to 
Sp. gr. 1-375. The mixture is heated slightly to induce 
chemical action, which becomes more or less violent. Three- 
fourths of the alumina and practically the whole of the iron 
of the clay combines with the sulphuric acid to form soluble 
sulphates. The mixed mass, after the chemical action has 
all but ceased, is dumped into a mould and allowed to remain 
in this till the greater part of the sulphuric acid has teen 
neutralised by alumina, or until it cools. The sides of the 
mould are then removed, and the cake cut by a guillotine 
into small pieces. The cake thus produced contains all the 
impurities of the clay and acid. The following represents the 
composition of commercial aluminous cake. Al, 3 11-54 
per cent. =38-53 per cent. Al, 3 (SOJ. Fe„ 3 0-16' per cent., 
SO 3 28-00 per cent., CaO 0"-12, Free acid 0-50 per cent. 
Insoluble matter, 22-40 per cent. ; water, Mg O, &c, 37-28 
per cent. 

Alumino-ferric Cake is prepared by the action of sul- 
phuric acid on bauxite, a hydrated alumina found in natural 
deposits in Ireland, France, &c. The bauxite is partly dried, 
ground to a fine powder, and mixed with oil of vitriol. The 
apparatus required for this purpose is a large wooden or cast- 
iron tank fitted with a mechanical agitator, which is driven 
overhead by gears. Both vessel and agitator are protected 
by a covering of lead. A lead plug and seat are provided in 
the bottom of the vessel, so that the charge when finished 



154 

may be run off. A plentiful supply of water must be near 
at hand, and also a small open steam pipe dips into the tub 
nearly to its bottom, so that the charge may be heated when 
necessary. 

Into this vessel there are run about 67 cubic feet of oil of 
vitriol of Sp. gr. 1-015 (123° Twad.) cold, and after heating 
slightly by the injection of steam, there are added about 
twenty hundredweights of "bauxite" or of "alum clay." 
After a short time a violent chemical action sets in with the 
evolution of much heat, causing the mass to swell and rise 
in the vessel. When this has nearly ceased more bauxite or 
alum clay is added, in portions of about two or three hundred- 
weights at a time. After each addition the chemical reaction 
is renewed, and in this way maintained until thirty hundred- 
weights or so of the aluminous material has been added. A 
quantity of water is added to prevent the mass from "settling,'' 
and steam is injected until all or nearly all the acid has been 
saturated with alumina. Finally it is diluted by the addition 
of cold water until it registers a density of about 40° Twad., 
and is run off into settlers, where the insoluble matter is 
allowed to deposit. The clear, cool sulphate of alumina liquor 
contains fully 90 per cent, of the alumina and iron originally 
contained in the bauxite or alum clay. It will show a density 
of about 37° Twad. when cold, and assuming first quality bauxite 
to have been used, will yield on analysis about 400 grammes 
of real Al 2 3(S0 4 ) + 18 H 2 0, with which are associated 
from 2-0 to 2-5 grammes of metallic iron. The iron exists 
partly as ferrous and partly as ferric salt. There is always 
present a quantity of free acid amounting to seldom more 
than three grammes per litre, which represents about 1-75 
per cent, of the total acid used; as also all the arsenic con- 
tained in the acid, and any lime, magnesia, and (if any) 
alkalis of the aluminous material. 

The following is an actual analysis of one of these liquors 
made from first quality bauxite and ordinary arsenical oil 
of vitriol : — 

Sp. gr. =1181 = 36-2° Twaddell. 
Grammes per Litre. 

Al„ 3(S 4 ) = 193-42 = 57-92 grammes Al., 0,. 

Fe;3(S0 4 )= 1-80 } , __, Fp 

Fe S 4 = 3-52J ~ L 794 * e * 

Free Acid = 1-57 

CaS0 4 = 2-69 

Water =977-13 

1180-13 



155 

Total solids by actual test, including free acid = 203-03 
grammes. 

Alumino -ferric cake is obtained by evaporating the above 
crude sulphate of alumina liquor to a suitable density and 
solidifying in moulds. 

Nearly all these products are fairly constant in com- 
position, and seldom require to be analysed in full. The 
only impurity of importance to papermakers which they 
contain is iron, and if this be present in large quantity it 
can be estimated with T Vth normal permanganate solution, 
or by the colour test, using sulpho -cyanide of potassium, or 
ferro-cyanide of potassium as the reagent. 

Aluminous cakes prepared from china clay and sulphuric 
acid should be examined for dirt and grit. The latter is 
derived from theundecomposed rock frequently mixed with the 
china clay. Twenty grammes of the aluminous cake are 
dissolved in hot water, and after diluting largely, and allowing 
to stand live minutes, the milky fluid is decanted. The 
sediment is again washed in the same way four or five times, 
and finally examined on a fine wire gauze or filter. 

The following method of analysis is applicable to aluminous 
cakes, alumino -ferric and sulphate of alumina : — 

(1) Insoluble Matter. — Dissolve 10 grammes of the 
finely-ground sample in hot water, and filter the solution 
through Swedish filter paper (previously treated with car- 
bonate of ammonium solution) into a 250 c.c. flask. When 
the whole of the insoluble matter has been brought into the 
filter it is thoroughly washed with hot water till free from 
S 3 . The filter and its contents are then dried, ignited 
in a platinum dish and finally weighed. The Wt. x 10 = per 
cent, insoluble matter. 

The filtrate from above is cooled, made up to 250 c.cs. by 
volume with cold distilled water and thoroughly mixed. 

(2) Aluminic and Ferric Oxides. — 2"> c.cs. ( =1 gramme 
of the original salt) of the filtrate from (1) are transferred to 
a beaker glass, 5 c.cs. of pure H CI added, and after diluting 
somewhat largely with water, ammonium hydrate added till 
the liquid smells slightly of ammonia. The iron and aluminum 
are precipitated as hydrated oxides. The contents are then 
boiled till all smell of ammonia vapour has ceased, after 
which the precipitate is filtered through Swedish filter paper 
and thoroughly washed with hot water. As it is usually 
impossible to obtain the alumina precipitate sufficiently pure 
with one precipitation, it is advisable to redissolve it in 
H CI, and reprecipitate it with ammonium hydrate, taking 
the precaution to boil off all smell of ammonia before finally 
filtering off the A1 2 3 . The precipitate should be washed 



156 

on the filter with hot water till the filtrate coming away is 
free from chlorine. The precipitated oxides with the filter 
are then dried and ignited first over a Bunsen's lamp, and 
finally over the blow-pipe flame — the latter to expel the last 
traces of water from the alumina. 

The Wt. of precipitate x 100 = per cent. A1. 2 3 and Fe 2 3 . 

(3) Ferric Oxide. — This is best ascertained by the colour 
test. 10 c.cs. of the filtrate from (1) are oxidised with a few 
drops of a clear solution of calcium hypochlorite acidified 
with 5 c.cs. of pure H CI and boiled till all trace of free CI 
has been expelled. Dilute to one litre, add sulpho -cyanide 
of potassium till no alteration in the depth of tint is observed. 
To another beaker of the same size add 5 c.cs. of pure H CI 
the same quantity of water and sulpho -cyanide of potassium. 
From a burette add -^ iron solution {1 c.c. = 0*0004 Fe 2 3 ) 
till the tint is the same depth as that of the aluminous cake 
solution. Multiply the c.cs. of standard iron solution by 250 
to get per cent, of Fe 3 3 in the sample. 

(4) Lime. — The filtrate from the first precipitate of alumina 
in (2) is again rendered alkaline with a few drops of ammonia 
and solution of ammonium oxalate added in slight excess to 
precipitate the lime as oxalate. The liquid is boiled and set aside 
in a warm place for a few hours, and if any precipitate appears 
this is filtered off, washed till free from soluble salts, dried, 
ignited and weighed. During the ignition the oxalate of lime 
is transformed into carbonate, and hence the precipitate is 
finally weighed as Ca C0 3 . As a general rule before finally 
weighing, the precipitate is cooled, moistened with a strong- 
solution of ammonium carbonate, and finally ignited until no 
trace of ammonium vapour is noticed escaping from the 
crucible. As the precipitate {x) is finally weighed as Ca C0 3 , 
the following proportion must be followed to ascertain the 
lime (y) thus : — 

100 : 56 : : x : y. y x 100 = per cent. CaO 

Note. — If necessary the filtrate from the alumina test (2) 
may be evaporated to smaller bulk before precipitating the 
CaO. 

(5) Total S0 3 . — 25 c.cs. of the filtrate from (1) are trans- 
ferred to a beaker, diluted with about 200 c.cs. of water, 
acidified with 5 c.cs. of pure H CI and heated to boiling. 
Barium chloride solution is then added in slight excess whereby 
the S0 3 is precipitated as insoluble Ba S0 4 . The solution 
is boiled gently on the sand bath for 15 minutes or so, and 
then set aside to cool. When cold the clear liquid is decanted 
off through a Swedish filter paper and the residue (precipitate) 
washed by decantation several times with hot water acidified 
with a few drops of H CI, and then finally brought on to the 



157 

filter. Here it is further washed till the washings are free 
from Chlorine. After drying the filter and its contents in 
the water bath, they are ignited in a platinum crucible or 
dish at a bright red heat, till all trace of carbon has disappeared. 
To find the S0 3 {y) corresponding to the weight of precipitate 
(x) obtained, the following proportion must be followed, 
viz. :— 233 : 80 ..' : : x : y. y x 100 = per cent. S0 3 . 

The moisture, Mg 0, alkalies, &c, may be ascertained by 
difference. 

Not^. — Calculate the results as follows: — x being Wt. of 
precipitate in each case. 

(ft) S0 3 combined with Al„ 0., to form Al 2 3(S0 4 ) 
= 102-8 : 240 : : x : a. 

{b) S0 3 combined with Fe 2 3 to form Fe 3(S0 4 ) 
= 160 : 280 : : x : b, 

(c) S0 3 existing as free acid (H 3 SOJ. The sum a + b 
deducted from total S O, found in 5 gives C : and C is 
converted into H 2 S0 4 {d) thus :— 80 : 98 : : c : d. 

The CaO may be expressed as such or as Ca S0 4 in which 
case the corresponding S0 3 has to be deducted from c. 



ANALYSIS OF SALT CAKE OR CRUDE 
SULPHATE OF SODA. 

Salt cake is a granular white powder possessing a slightly- 
yellowish or greenish yellow tint. It is obtained by acting 
upon common salt with oil of vitriol in cast-iron pans heated 
by a fire, and subsequent roasting at a red heat in specially 
constructed furnaces. It is freely soluble in water, and 
evolves heat on solution. The impurities it contains are free 
sulphuric acid, common salt, sulphate of lime, and ferric and 
alumiuic sulphates, with a small quantity of insoluble matter. 
It is usually sold on the basis of 9ti per cent, sulphate of soda, 
but a much richer product can be obtained if desired. It is 
used in the paper trade for the production (1) of caustic soda 
lyes (Le Blanc process), (2) pearl hardening, and (3) sulphate 
wood pulp. 

1. Insoluble matter. — Dissolve 50 grammes of the sample 
in hot water in a beaker, and filter the solution through a 
tared filter into a 500 c.c flask. Transfer the insoluble 
matter from the beaker to the filter and wash with hot water. 
Dry the filter and contents and weigh. The increase in 
weight X 2 — per cent, of insoluble matter. 

2. Free sulphuric acid. — The solution in the flask is 
cooled and made up to 500 c.cs. with distilled water. After 
it is mixed draw off 100 c.cs., and titrate with y^th normal 



158 

caustic soda, using red litmus paper as indicator. The number 
of c.cs., of ^th normal caustic soda taken x 0-0049 x 10 — per 
cent, free acid. 

3. Sodium chloride or common salt. — Ten c.cs. of the 
filtered liquor from 1 are transferred to a small beaker, a drop 
or two of chromatejof potash solution added, and the chlorine 
estimated with T \yth normal nitrate of silver, as set forth at 
page 146. The number of c.cs. of ^th normal Ag No 3 taken 
X 0-00585 x 100= per cent, of Na CI. 

4. Ferric and aluminic oxides — These are usually esti- 
mated together by precipitation with ammonia. Take 100 
c.cs. of the fluid from 1 place in a beaker, dilute with an 
equal volume of water, and then add ammonia in slight excess. 
Boil till the smell of ammonia has disappeared, and filter off 
the precipitated oxides, collecting the filtrate in a clean flask. 
Wash the precipitate thoroughly with hot water, adding the 
washings to the bulk in the flask. The filter and contents aie 
then dried, ignited, and weighed. Weight x 10 = per cent. 
Fe 2 3 and Al 2 3 . During ignition a bright yellow heat 
should be employed. 

5. Calcium sulphate. — The filtrate from the iron and 
alumina test (4) is rendered again slightly alkaline with 
ammonia heated to boiling and excess of oxalate of ammonia 
added. Set aside in a warm place for two or three hours, and 
then filter off the precipitated oxalate of lime. After washing 
well with water, the filter and contents are dried, ignited, and 
weighed. During ignition the oxalate of lime is converted 
into carbonate. Multiply weight of precipitate by 1-360, and 
then by 10 = per cent, of sulphate of lime in the sample. 

6. Moisture is estimated as usual by drying 10 grammes 
in the water bath at 212° Fah. till the weight is constant. 
Loss of weight X 10 = per cent, moisture. 

7. The sulphate of soda is usuallv not determined, but is 
found "by difference" — i.e., the sum of the impurities deducted 
from 100 yields substantially the percentage of pure sulphate 
of soda in the sample. 



ANALYSIS OF SODA-SMELT. "SULPHATE 
PROCESS." 

Fifty grammes of the sample are dissolved in about one- 
half a litre of water at 45° Centi. (the water being previously 
boiled to expel C0 2 and O) in a large stoppered flask and 
repeatedly shaken for two hours. 

A. Insoluble. — The above solution is filtered off through 
a filter into a litre flask, the insoluble residue being washed 
with cold water (freed from C0 2 and O as above described), 



159 

dried and weighed with the filter. After this, the filter and 
its contents are ignited in a weighed crucible with free access 
of air till the residue is burnt free from carbonaceous matter 
The weight of the remaining ash is then ascertained. This 
weight, after deducting the weight of the filter, gives the 
insoluble matter ; whilst the difference between it and the 
second weighing represents the carbonaceous matter in 
50 grammes of the sample. 

The filtrate in the latter flask is made up to 1,000 c.cs. 
with cold distilled water, thoroughly mixed and submitted 
to analysis as follows : — ■ 

B. Total Alkali expressed in teems of Na 2 0. — Twenty 
c.cs. of the solution (— 1 gramme of the smelt) are withdrawn 
with a pipette, placed in a white porcelain dish, diluted with 
cold water (preferably at 0° Centi.) and titrated with normal 
acid (1 c.c.= 0-031 Na 5 O), using methyl orange as the 
indicator. The c.cs. of acid consumed x 0-031 x 100 repre- 
sents the alkali (Na 2 O) existing in the solution as Na 2 CO s , 
NaOH, Na 2 Si0 3 and Na. 2 S. The last three constituents 
are determined separately as set forth below in C, D and E. 

C. Soda . as NaOH. — Forty c.cs. of the smelt solution 
are transferred to a stoppered 100 c.c. flask heated to boiling 
and 10 c.cs. of a solution of barium chloride (10 per cent. 
Ba CI 2 +2 Aqua) added, and the flask filled to the mark 
in the neck with boiling water. Replace the stopper and 
shake. After a few minutes, when the precipitate has settled, 
50 c.cs. of the clear liquid are withdrawn and titrated with 
methvl orange and normal acid as in B. Each c.c. of the 
acid corresponds to 0-031 Na 2 or 0-040 NaOH. In this 
test the Na 2 S is determined as well, so that allowance must 
be made for this in E. One part by weight of NaOH 
corresponds to 1-325 parts by weight of Na 2 C0 3 . 

D. Silicate of Soda Na 2 Si0 3 . Twenty c.cs. of the 
solution are carefully acidified with pure HC1 in a porcelain 
dish and evaporated to dryness in a water bath, and the 
Si0. 2 determined, as set forth in page 147. One part of 
SiO„ corresponds to 2-033 parts Na n SiO. or 1-033 parts 
Na s O. 

E. Sulphide of Sodium Na 2 S. — In 10 c.cs. of the fluid 
(= -5 grammes of the smelt) the sulphide of sodium is deter- 
mined by titrate with ammoniacal silver solution prepared by 
dissolving 17-00 grammes of AgN0 3 in distilled water, rendered 
alkaline with 25 c.cs. of ammonium hydrate, and the whole 
made up exactly to 1 litre in volume. Each c.c. of this 
solution corresponds to 0-0039 Na 2 S. The standard ammo- 
niacal silver solution is added drop by drop to the test solution 
previously heated to boiling until no more black precipitate 



160 

of Ag. 2 S is formed. The end reaction can best be ascertained 
by filtering off a drop of the test solution on to a porcelain slab 
and adding thereto a drop of the standard silver. The c.cs. 
silver solution consumed x 0-0039 x 250 = % Na. 2 S in 
the original smelt. One part by weight of Na., S corresponds 
to 0-794 part of Na o 0, 1-026 parts NaOH and 1-359 parts 
of Na 2 C0 3 . 

F. Sulphite of Soda Na 2 S0 3 . — Acidify 20 c.cs. of 
the fluid with acetic acid, add starch solution and then titrate 
with ■£$ iodine solution (12-7 grammes iodine per litre) till 
permanent blue tint is produced. The iodine is a direct 
measure of the Na 2 S (E) and Na„ S0 3 . The c.cs. consumed 

x 0-0063 x 100"= % Na 2 S0 8 . From this has to be 
deducted the Na 2 S found in E. One part Na 2 S corresponds 
to 1-615 parts Na 2 S0 3 . 

G. Sulphate op Soda 2 Na 3 S0 4 . — The filtrate from 
D (=1 gramme of the sample) is acidified with HC1, raised 
to boiling point, barium chloride added in slight excess, and 
the mixture kept hot on a sand plate for a few hours. The 
precipitated Ba S0' 4 is then filtered ' off, washed, dried, 
ignited and weighed. The weight of the precipitated 

x 0-6094 x 100- %Na, S0 4 . 

The soda smelt rapidly absorbs moisture from the air, and 
in consequence, care must be taken to keep the sample in 
closely-stoppered bottles. Moreover, on exposure to the air, 
the sulphide of sodium is converted by oxidation into sulphite 
(Na.j S0 3 ). When the smelt is run in the molten state 
direct into water, this oxidation is avoided. The analysis 
of the liquors thus obtained may be carried out as above, 
but in ordinary manufacturing practice it is scarcely necessary 
to determine more than the total alkali (Na 3 - O, Na 2 C0 3 , 
NaOH and Na 2 S). This can best be done by first deter- 
mining the total alkalinity with normal acid and methyl 
orange ; second, the caustic soda NaOH with normal acid 
and phenol- phthalein ; and, third, the sulphide with T ^ 
iodine, using starch as the indicator. The phenol-phthalein 
test gives the caustic, and this deducted from the total alkali 
gives the soda existing as carbonate and sulphide, from 
which the sulphide is deducted to obtain the soda present 
as carbonate. The author has found it advantageous to reckon 
the Na, C0 3 and Na 3 S on 100 alkali (Na, 0) obtained by the 
methyl orange test, as by this mode of expressing the results 
any change from day to day in the composition of the liquors 
can be accurately observed. 



161 



CHINA CLAYS. 



Colour, fineness, and plasticity are the necessary features 
of china clays for papermaking. The examination of clays is 
carried out as follows : — 

Water. — Ignite 2 grammes of the clay in a porcelain 
crucible at a red heat. The loss in weight x 50 = per cent, 
of water (free and combined). 

Iron. — Digest one gramme of the clay about 212° Fah. 
in pure hydrochloric acid for a few hours, dilute with distilled 
water, filter, and add a few small crystals of yellow prussiate 
of potash to the filtrate. The depth of the colour (Prussian 
blue) formed is a measure of the amount of iron. 

Lime. — The presence of lime is deleterious to the sizing, 
due to the formation of lime soap. One gramme of the dry clay 
is fused in a platinum crucible with 5 grammes of a mixture 
of carbonates of soda and potash, at a red heat till the fused 
mass becomes quiescent. The flux is allowed to cool, dissolved 
in H CI, the fluid neutralized with ammonia, and then filtered. 
Add to the filtrate ammonium oxalate. If lime be present 
in any quantity a white precipitate will be formed. 

Fineness. — To ascertain whether sand, undecomposed rock, 
and other coarse bodies are present, 20 grammes of the clay 
are rubbed up with water in a mortar, and then sieved through 
wire gauze, 100 meshes to the inch. The residue remaining 
on the sieve may be weighed. 

Plasticity. — The measure of the plasticity of a clay for 
papermaking is best carried out in the following way ; — Make 
up a thin starch paste by boiling 1 gramme of starch in a 
litre of water. Place 100 c.cs. of this paste together with 5 
grammes of the sample of clay in a graduated glass, and shake 
well. Allow to stand at rest for 24 hours. The finer 
and more plastic the clay, the greater its miscibility with 
the starch paste — i.e., the less it settles to the bottom of the 
vessel. Various samples may be compared in this way. 

Colour. — The comparison of different clays for colour or 
whiteness is carried out by separately mixing the different 
samples with water to a thick paste, and placing them on a 
porcelain slab side by side for examination. 



STARCH. 

Starch is sometimes adulterated with gypsum, clay, or chalk, 
and in order to examine it for these bodies ignite 5 grammes or 
so of the sample in a platinum crucible, with free admission of 
air ill the carbon is burnt off. The residue is weighed, and 

11 



162 

the percentage of ash calculated. Pure starch should leave on 
burning only traces of ash. If there is considerable ash left, 
divide it into three parts, to one add dilute H 3 S 4 , and if 
effervescence takes place carbonate of lime is present. If the 
effervescence is not so marked, gypsum or clay may be 
present. To ascertain whether the former is so, a second 
portion of the residue is placed upon a filter and washed with 
cold distilled water. Heat the filtrate and add alcohol. If the 
fluid turns turbid, gypsum is present ; if, on the other hand, no 
turbidity is produced, the third portion of the ash is gently 
heated with concentrated H 2 S0 4 in a platinum dish over a 
spirit lamp, and, after cooling, the thin pasty fluid is diluted by 
pouring it into distilled water. Filter and add carbonate of 
soda solution to the filtrate till no further effervescence takes 
place. If a precipitate is formed, clay is present. 

In the foregoing tests the water and chemical reagents must 
be perfectly pure. 

Starch is sometimes adulterated with woody fibre, and in 
order to ascertain whether or not this is present, 20 grammes 
starch are rubbed down with 200 c.cs. of diluted hydrochloric 
acid, and boiled a quarter of an hour. The starch is thus con- 
verted into a soluble combination. The fluid is filtered whilst 
warm, and the residue in the filter boiled for a short time in a 
dilute solution of potash lye. The residue is again filtered 
off, washed with hot water till the washings are free from 
alkali, and dried at 212° Fah. and weighed. 



RESIN. 

Examination of Resin. — Good resin should on breaking 
show a glistening fracture, and should appear clear and trans- 
parent when held towards the light. It usually contains 5 per 
cent, of mechanically mixed impurities, and when it contains 
turpentine it appears turbid or cloudy. The following process 
has been recommended as a means of ascertaining its value 
for paper manufacture. 100 grammes are dissolved in a 
capacious glass vessel with 25 grammes of carbonate of soda, and 
water. When effervescence has ceased, the mixture is allowed 
to cool, and the black or brown lye removed by decantation. 
Dissolve 25 grammes of ammonia soda in ^th of a litre of 
water, add to the resin soap, and shake well, heat to boiling, 
allow to cool, and finally pour off the separated lye. The resin 
soap is now dissolved in a litre of distilled water, and then 
decomposed with the addition of dilute sulphuric acid — i.e., 
the acid is added till the mixture shows a strong acid reaction 
with blue litmus paper. The precipitated resin sinks to the 
bottom, pour off the clear liquid, and wash several times by 
decantation with pure water. The precipitate is then removed, 



163 

and placed upon a piece of blotting paper to drain, then dried 
in the air on a porous earthenware tile, and, lastly, weighed. 
If the fluid remains tarbid or milky after the addition of 
the dilute sulphuric acid it may be filtered. 



WATE R. 

The bodies present in water which have an influence on the 
operations of papermaking are chiefly lime, sulphuric acid 
(sulphates), chlorine (chlorides), and iron. 

The presence of Lime may be detected by adding oxalate of 
ammonia to a quantity of the water placed in a clean test tube, 
and if a white precipitate is formed after heating, lime salts are 
present. 

Sulphates may be detected by acidifying a small quantity 
of the water with a drop or two of H CI, and adding barium 
chloride. A white precipitate indicates the presence of 
sulphuric acid (sulphates). 

Chlorides are detected by adding nitrate of silver to the 
water, acidified with a drop of pure nitric acid. A white 
precipitate of chloride of silver indicates the presence of 
chlorides. 

Iron is usually detected by means of yellow prussiate of 
potash. This salt forms Prussian blue with iron salts. A test 
tube, 12 inches long by 1\ inches in diameter, is filled with the 
sample of water, and a small crystal of yellow prussiate of 
potash added. Shake, and allow to stand 15 minutes or so. 
By looking down the tube very small quantities of Prussian 
blue, due to the presence of iron, can be detected. 

Lime salts (and magnesia) are almost invariably present in 
all natural waters, and hence these are more or less "hard." 
On heating such waters the carbonic acid holding the lime in 
solution is driven off, and carbonate of lime is precipitated. 
The sulphates and chlorides remain in solution for the most 
jDart. The "total hardness" of a natural water is therefore 
divided into "temporary hardness "and "permanent hardness" 
— the former representing the bodies (chiefly lime) which are 
precipitated by boiling the water to, say, ith of its bulk, whilst 
permanent hardness represents those bodies which remain in 
solution after such treatment. The hardness of a water is 
expressed in degrees, each one of which, according to Prank- 
land's scale, represents 1 grain of calcic carbonate, or its 
equivalent of any other calcium or magnesium salt, in 100,000 
grains of water (=0-01 grm. per litre). On the other hand, 
one degree of hardness, as indicated by Dr. Clark's soap test, is 
equivalent to one grain of calcic carbonate per gallon. Dr. 



164 

Clark's soap test is carried out as follows: — Total hardness. 
— Place 70 c.cs. of the water in a well-stoppered glass bottle ; 
and add a standard Clark's soap solution from a burette, little 
by little at a time, and shaking up well after each addition, 
until a permanent froth is formed on the surface of the 
water. The c.cs. soap solution = degrees of total hardness. 
Permanent hardness. — 70 c.cs. of the water are evaporated to 
ith of its bulk, filtered through a small filter of Swedish paper, 
and the filtrate, after being made up to 70 c.cs. with dis- 
tilled water, treated with the soap solution in the above 
way. The number of c.cs. consumed represents the degrees 
of permanent hardness of the water. Temporary hardness is 
obtained by deducting the number of degrees of permanent 
hardness from the degrees of " total hardness." 



EXAMINATION OF COAL. 

1. Moisture. — Heat 100 grammes of the sample to 105° 
C. (not above) for two hours or so in a covered crucible, to 
prevent free ingress of air. The crucible must be covered to 
avoid partial oxidation and escape of volatile matter. 
Towards the end of the drying process the weight should 
remain constant. Loss of weight =: per cent, of moisture. 

2. Fixed Carbon or Residual Coke. — 5 grammes of 
the sample are placed in a deep, narrow platinum crucible, 
provided with a tight-fitting cover, and heated to a dull 
redness over the flame of a Bunsen*s burner until volatile 
matter ceases to escape. The flame of the burner should be 
large enough to envelope the crucible and maintain it in a 
state of uniform redness. The crucible should be supported 
on a triangle of thin platinum wire. The test is repeated two 
or three times, and the average weight of coke obtained, 
multiplied by 20, noted as the true percentage of fixed carbon. 

3. Ash. The fixed carbon or coke obtained from the 
tests in 2, is pulverised in a mortar, dried, and one gramme 
weighed off, placed in a platinum crucible, and ignited over 
the flame of the Bunsen burner till all carbon is burnt off. 
The weight of ash obtained, multiplied by the percentage of 
fixed carbon, gives the per cent, of ash. The crucible should 
be supported on a thin platinum triangle, and tilted slightly 
on one side, to allow freer access of air ; or, better, it is fitted 
in a hole in an asbestos board, and placed in a slanting position 
on a tripod stand. The asbestos board serves to separate the 
air required for oxidation from the gases of the burner, and 
thus greatly hastens the combustion of the carbon * * * * 
If the ash in a coal is to be determined, then one gramme of 
the coal is weighed off and ignited as above, the result being 
multiplied by 100 to find per cent. 



165 

4. Volatile Matter. — This is usually obtained by 
difference ; that is to say, the sum of the percentages of 
moisture, coke, and ash found above, are deducted from 100, 
the remainder being noted as volatile matter. 



CHIMNEY GASES. 

In these CO„, O, CO, and N (by difference) are most con- 
veniently estimated by means of the well-known Orsat's 
apparatus. In this apparatus the C0 2 is estimated by absorb- 
tion with aqueous solution of caustic potash of specific gravity 
1.20 — 1 - 28. The oxygen by absorbtion with thin sticks of 
phosphorus, -*th inch diameter, kept at a temperature of 
18° C. under water, and free from light and tarry matters, &c. 
The absorbtion is too slow at a less temperature than 18 C. 
Pyrogallate of potash — pyrogallic acid in aqueous solution 
of caustic potash — is frequently used for determining the 
oxygen. Phosphorus is preferable. The carbonic oxide CO, 
is determined by absorption in cupric chloride dissolved 
in hydrochloric acid in the presence of metallic copper 
(10 grammes Cu Cl 3 90 c.cs. of concentrated H CI, 20 c.cs., 
water and sheet copper sufficient to reduce it, the whole 
brought together at least 24 hours before using). This solution 
should be frequently renewed. 



TEMPERATURE OF FLUES. 

Up to 300° C. the temperature of flues can be taken by 
means of long mercurial thermometers, taking care that the 
bulb of the thermometer is well in the stream of the flowing 
gases, or towards the centre of the flue. The stem should be 
long enough that the readings can be taken while the ther- 
mometer is in place. For temperatures higher than this, 
Fischers Calorimetric Pyrometer is the most suitable ap- 
paratus. It consists of (1) a wrought-iron box with lid, 
welded to the end of a long rod, by means of which it can 
be thrust into the space whose temperature is required. 
(2.) A small cylinder of wrought-iron, copper, or platinum, 
preferably the former, say, 2 c. long by 1 c. diameter, whose 
weight is accurately known. This cylinder is placed in 
the iron box, and exposed to the heat of the furnace or flue. 
(3.) The Calorimeter, a cylindrical vessel made of thin sheet 
copper, about 6 c. diameter by 15 c. deep. This vessel is 
enveloped by a wrapping of soft loose wool, fur, or such like 



166 




substance, and then by a thick wooden jacket. It is provided 
with a brass cover, having two holes, through one of which a 
fine stencilled thermometer graduated in tenths of degrees is 
passed, whilst the other, 2 c. in diameter, is for dropping in 
the hot cylinder. Through this hole the wire handle of a 
copper disc, a little less in diameter than the vessel, also 
passes, which serves as a stirrer. The operation of taking the 
temperature is performed as follows : — The Calorimeter is filled 
tAvo-thirds with an accurately weighed or measured quantity 
of water, and its temperature t°, taken with the thermometer, is 
read off and noted. Immediately afterwards, the small iron 
cylinder (2), which should have been exposed in the iron box 
(1) for at least twenty minutes in the flue or furnace, whose 
temperature is to be ascertained, is rapidly withdrawn and 
dropped into the Calorimeter. The cylinder falls upon the 
disc of the stirrer, which is rapidly moved up and down, the 
temperature meanwhile being constantly watched. When this 
is at its maximum it is read off and noted as t 1 . Up — the 
weight of the metal cylinder, and c — its specific heat (specific 
heat of copper =: 0094 : of wrought-iron 0*114 ; for platinum 
0032, but these increase with the temperature, so that there is 
here a source of inaccuracy) ; p 1 — the weight of the water 
within the Calorimeter, added to the water-weight of the 



167 

copper vessel and stirrer itself (water- weight means the actual 
weight multiplied by the specific heat, i.e., 0"094 for copper ; 
the thermometer, if very slender, may be left out of the calcu- 
lation). The temperature of the hot cylinder T is found 
by the formula: — 

T= *i -f-j^C * 1 -Q 
p c 

If p x and p are constant, the magnitude — can be converted 

into a factor, by which the difference of thermometer readings 
is multiplied, thus at once yielding the temperature sought, 
after the first temperature t 1 has been added to the product. 
For practical purposes it is convenient to choose the quantities, 
so that this factor becomes a simple number. For very high 

jo 1 
temperatures the value — should not be less than 50. For lower 

ones it will be sufficient if it is 25, but it should not be chosen 
less than 25. The same factor will, Avith the same apparatus, 
yield Fahrenheit degrees if a Fahrenheit thermometer is used 
instead of a Centigrade one. The mean specific heat of iron 
between o° C. and t° C. is G = 0*1053 + 0-000071 t° (Bede). 
By means of this value for the mean specific heat of iron, the 
temperature can be calculated according to the formula : — 

pi (t 1 - *<>) + pt* (0-1053 + 0-00007U 1 ) \ 

U-OOOOTlp " + 549822 ) 741 ^ 



Yt 



(Akali Maker's Handbook.) 



PAPER TESTING (Machine Made). 
(Based on Hertzberg's " Papier Priifung") 

1. The absolute strength of a paper is determined by 
ascertaining the weight necessary to break a strip of standard 
width, but as the strain which is required to break the strip 
varies with the thickness of the paper, Hartig expresses the 
results in so-called "breaking length." This is calculated 
from the power used to break the strips, and from their weight. 
Breaking length is defined as that length of paper of any breadth 
and thickness which when suspended would break by its own 
weight at the point of suspension. Breadth and thickness have 
no influence on this value. 

Machine-made paper is stronger in the direction in which the 
machine runs than at right angles to it or across the machine, 
the difference being usually in the proportion of 15 to 12. The 
expansion also varies, being less in the machine direction than 
across, the proportions being very nearly the same as those of 



16S 



the strength. The same differences are found in hand-made 
papers, but in a less degree. 

To determine the " tensile strength " it is first of all necessary 
to ascertain the " machine " and " cross " direction of the sheet 
of paper under examination. In the case of sized papers, cut a 
disc, three inches diameter, float it on water to thoroughly wet 
one side only, remove to the palm of the hand, wet side down- 
wards, until two sides bend and curl inwards. A line drawn 
through the centre of the sides which have curved upwards is 
the direction across the machine, and one at right angles to this 
indicates Ihe " machine" direction. Cut off iivestrips parallel 
to each direction, 180 cm. long by 15 mm. wide (best done 
by a machine constructed for the purpose, but, failing this, 
with an iron ruler, zinc plate, and sharj) knife), and carefully 
mark each. It is necessary to make five individual tests with 
the strips cut from the two " directions " in order to average 
them. The best machine for ascertaining the breaking weight 
of the strips is that invented by Louis JSchopper. This machine 
registers automatically the breaking weight in kilogrammes, 
and the amount of stretch in per cents, and millimetres, which 
the strip of normal length — : viz., 180 mm. long — undergoes 
during the trial. It is not necessary to make more than five 
trials with strips cut from the sample in each direction. The 
average breaking weight and expansion or stretch is recorded 
in each case, and the strips torn off from between the clamps of 
the testing machine should be rolled up and afterwards 
weighed, the total weight of the five strips and the average 
being duly recorded. The length between the clamps is exactly 
180 mm. These figures may be catalogued as follows: — 



Machine Direction. 


Cross Direction. 


Strip 
No. 


Breaking 
Strains. 

Kg. 


Expan- 
sion. 

% 


Weights, 
grammes. 


Strip 
No. 


Breaking- 
Strains. 

Kg-. 


Expan- 
sion. 

X 


Weights 
grammes. 


















Total 








Total 








.\veiage 








Average 









169 

Assuming the average breaking weight expressed in kilo- 
grammes to be a, and the average weight of the five strips, each 
180 mm. long, to be b, and x the breaking length in metres, then, 

0-180 _ x 0-180 

— 7 „ i nna 5 or x = — 7 — ' X a X 1,000. 

b a X 1,000 ' o 

If, for example, a = 2*44 kilogrammes, and b = 0*210 gramme, 

then x zz • T ^o' x 1 ' 000 x 2 ' U i or 
0-180x1,000x2-44 nnnt 
^ = 2,091 = x. 

If x is expressed in kilometres, then this result is 2-091. 

It is obvious that, 0*180 being a constant and b a variable, 
a table can be constructed giving the values of the quotient 

— i — for different values of b, and such has been given by 

Hertzberg. This table is useful in simplifying the calculations, 
and Will be found at the end of the late Mr. P. Norman Evans' 
translation of Hertzberg's work, " Papier- Prufung." 

It has been observed by Hertzberg and others that a small 
increase in the percentage of moisture in a paper diminishes its 
strength, and therefore the humidity and temperature of the 
air in which the paper has lain for some time should be 
ascertained with a per cent, hygrometer, and duly recorded. 

2. Resistance to folding and crumpling. — This was formerly 
ascertained empirically by rubbing or " washing " the paper by 
hand, but a very ingenious machine has recently been invented 
whereby the resistance to folding and crushing is recorded in 
figures. This machine is patented and made by L. Schopper, 
of Leipsic, but is too complicated for description here. 

3. Determination of thickness. — The thickness of a paper 
can be roughly ascertained by placing a known number of 
sheets one upon another, pressing the pile, and then measuring 
it. The figure giving the height of the pile divided by the 
number of sheets gives the thickness. Two handy forms of 
apparatus are, however, now commonly used for this purpose, 
viz., Reitz's and ^chopper's micrometers. Schopper's micro- 
meter is, perhaps, the best and most reliable, as the pressure is 
always the same. The thickness of the sheet in fractions of a 
millimetre is read off directly from the scale of the instrument. 

4. Determination of the ash. — This is invariably ascertained 
by incinerating a known weight, say one gramme of the paper 
in a platinum or porcelain crucible till all carbon has been 
burnt. The Aveight of the whitish residue, when one gramme 
is taken for the test, multiplied by 100 gives the per cent, of 
ash, The ash represents the mineral matter or inorganic 



170 

compounds contained in the paper, and chiefly consists of some 
of the well-known mineral loadings, such as china clay, pearl 
hardening (precipitated sulphate of lime), and gypsum ; 
" blancjixe " (precipitated barium sulphate), heavy spar (native 
barium sulphate) ; ochres, umber, asbestine, &c. The com- 
position of the ash can only be ascertained by an exhaustive 
chemical analysis. 

5. Microscopical investigation. — The object of such an in- 
vestigation is to ascertain the fibres from which the paper is 
made, their physical condition, and their relative proportions 
to one another. It is only possible to do this by studying the 
physical structure of the most commonly occurring fibres, such 
as wood cellulose, esparto, straw, jute, cotton, linen, hemp, 
and mechanical wood, so that these may be recognised with 
certainty under the microscope. The subject is too large to be 
treated exhaustively in this book, but the mode of preparing 
the fibres for such an examination, and the behaviour of the 
commonly occurring fibres towards well-defined chemical 
solutions, can be profitably given, as also the main features of 
the fibres themselves. 

Hertzberg, in a recent communication to the Konigl. techn. 
Versuchanst zu Berlin, recommends the following mode of 
treating the paper preparatory to examination : — Cut small 
pieces of the paper from different sheets, place them in a 
porcelain basin and mascerate for a short time in a cold 
4 per cent, aqueous solution of soda, add water, and finally heat 
to boiling. If mechanically ground wood is present, the paper 
will assume a pea-yellow coloration. Boil for 15 minutes, 
and throw the whole on to a small sieve of fine wire gauze and 
thoroughly wash. Remove the pulp to a wide-mouth, glass- 
stoppered bottle containing a number of glass balls (small 
garnets are very suitable), add some water, and shake till a thin 
uniform pulp is produced. Drain the pulp on a fine sieve. 

In the above treatment any wool present disappears, since 
it is soluble in caustic soda ; and therefore papers containing 
wool fibre must be treated with water only. Coloured 
papers do not, as a rule, require any special treatment. If, 
however, the colour refuses to disappear, it may be removed by 
a solvent or reagent such as alcohol, hydrochloric or nitric 
acids, hypochlorite of lime, &c. 

A small portion of the prepared pulp is then removed from 
the sieve by means of a platinum needle with lancet-shaped 
point, pressed between clean filter paper or on a porous slab of 
porcelain, and placed upon a microscopical glass slide by a fine 
platinum needle. The recognition of the fibres is greatly 
facilitated by the use of certain colouring solutions, of which 
the two following are recommended, viz. ; — 



171 



Solution I. — Water, 20 c.cs. ; potassium iodide, 2 grammes; 
iodine, 1 *15 grammes ; glycerine, 2 c.cs. 

Solution II. — Prepare first (a) 20 grammes of dry zinc 
chloride in 10 c.cs. of water; (b) 2*1 grammes of 
potassium iodide, and O'l gramme of iodine in 5 
grammes of water. Mix a and b together, allow the 
precipitate to settle, and deeant off the clear fluid, 
finally, add a little iodine. 

The micro-chemical reaction, or the coloration produced in 
the different fibres by these solutions, is as follows : — 



Fibres. 


Coloration. 


Solution No. 1. 


Solution No. 2. 


Linen, hemp, and 

cotton 

Wood cellulose 

Straw cellulose and 

jute 
Esparto 

Manilla hemp 

Wood (ground) and 

raw jute 
Straw 


Pale to dark brown . Thin 
scales almost colourless. 
Grev to brown. 
Grey. 

Part grey and part brown 

Part grey, part brown, 

and part yellowish 

brown. 
Part yellowish brown and 

part yellow. 
Part yellowish brown, 

part yellow and part 

grey. 


Pale to dark wine-red. 

Blue to reddish-violet. 
Blue to bluish-violet. 

Part blue and part wine- 
red. 
Blue, bluish-violet, red- 
dish violet, dirty yellow, 
greenish-yellow. 
Lemon yellow to dark 

yellow. 
Part yellow, part blue, 
and part bluish-violet. 



The prepared fibres on the glass slide are saturated with 
a drop or two of either of the above solutions, the individual 
fibres separated from one another by stirring with the 
platinum needle, and then a glass cover carefully placed 
over the drop of liquid containing the fibres. The excess of 
fluid surrounding the glass cover is removed with blotting or 
filter paper before placing the slide under the microscope. 

A microscope capable of magnifying from 300 to 550 times 
will cover all necessary requirements. 

The following are the main structural characteristics of 
the fibres commonly used in paper-making : — 

Linek. — Maximum length of original plant fibres, 4 centi- 
metres. They are about one-half the thickness of cotton, 
with tapering ends, and chiefly characterised by the repeated 
thickening of the cell walls, forming knots at short intervals. 
The knots are often flattened during the beating process, 
causing the fibre to break at the point where they occur. 



172 

Central canal very narrow, frequently appearing as a dark 
line. Walls of cells are perforated with numerous pores, 
running from the interior to the exterior, and appearing as 
dark lines. 

Hemp. — Closely resembles linen; the central canal is, 
however, broader, being about a quarter to one-half the 
diameter of the cell. The membrane of the cell is distinctly 
marked (striated) in the direction of its length. 

Cotton. — Fibres have a maximum length of 5 centimetres, 
and are formed of single tapering cells. The diameter of the 
cell is about two-thirds of the total diameter, and the walls 
are flattened and twisted spirally. The treatment in caustic 
soda and in the beating engine counteracts to a large extent 
this tendency of the fibre to twist. 

Mechanical Wood. — (Pinus sylvestris, pinus picea,pinus 
abies.) — The structure of the fibres is very similar in the whole 
group of pines, and are distinguished by minute differences 
in their cells. These cells have their walls characterised by 
spots or pores, generally appearing as two concentric rings. 
Spots on cell wall in autumn and spring wood appear more or 
less elliptical. Note also the cells of the medullary rays, 
which run from the centre to the outside of the stem in the 
shape of a star, and are remarkable for their latticed structure. 
(See chemical tests for mechanical wood in papers, page 174.) 

Wood Cellulose. — What is true of mechanical wood is also 
true of pine wood cellulose. This is characterised by the 
ring-surrounded pores or the dotted wood cells. Frequently, 
however, these characteristics are destroyed, owing to the 
chemical treatment to which the wood has been subjected. 
The cells of the medullary rays are generally absent. Many 
of the fibres show the same spiral twisting as cotton, and a 
latticed striping of the cell membrane. Pine cellulose remains 
colourless, whilst cotton cellulose is turned brown with iodine 
solution. If the cellulose has been badly prepared, iodine 
will colour the fibres slightly yellow. 

Straw Cellulose. — From wheat, rye, barley, and oat 
straw. Note the characteristic cells of the epidermis, which 
are thick-walled, more or less silicious, with jagged edges. 
These cells are joined to one another by their ragged edges, 
and very occasionally are grouped. They occur in various 
sizes. The edges are frequently deeply serrated, sometimes 
only slightly uneven. The most numerous cells, however, are 
the bast cells — long thin fibres of regular structure, with a 
small internal canal. At regular intervals the walls thicken, 
giving the fibre a knotted appearance, and the central canal 



173 

narrows at these points, broadening out again on either side. 
Note also numerous pores, which appear as dark lines running 
from the canal to the exterior. Also the great number of 
very thin- walled parenchyma cells, rounded at both ends at 
times, sometimes almost circular, sometimes long, and covered 
more or less with simple pores. The presence of these 
cells distinguishes with certainty straw from esparto cellulose. 
Further, notice the sclerenchyma — very thick-walled silicious 
cells, somewhat bluish in appearance. 

Esparto Cellulose. — Structure of cells similar to that of 
straw cellulose. As a general rule esparto cells are finer and 
dimensions smaller than in straw. The bast cells are very 
short, are unevenly built with thick walls, so that frequently 
the central canal appears only as a line, while the irregularities 
in the curves of the canal so noticeable in straw are not to be 
found in esparto. Epidermic cells resemble those of straw 
cellulose. The large thin-walled parenchyma cells are entirely 
absent in esparto, but the sclerenchyma cells are found. The 
presence of small teeth-like bodies, which come from the leaves 
of the plant serves to prove the presence of esparto cellulose. 

Jute. — The walls are sometimes very thin and suddenly 
thicken, narrowing the central canal to a mere line. The 
fibres are often joined together in bundles, -which prevents the 
identification of the cell structure. Occasionally they exhibit 
pores and knots similar to those in linen cellulose, and possessing 
a yellow-brown colour. 

Note on the Microscopical Examination or Papers. — 
No written description of the characteristics of the different 
varieties of fibres used in the paper manufacture will 
suffice as a safe guide, and the investigator is recommended to 
use the numerous charts published, to give him the correct 
forms. With these charts there is no difficulty in ascertaining 
the true characteristics of each fibre, and in that way more 
certainly isolate them in the examination of any individual 
paper. 

6. The chemical examination of papers : — 

Animal Size. — A small quantity of the paper is macerated 
in hot water and the liquid filtered. Add a small quantity of 
tannic acid to the filtrate. The formation of a turbid pre- 
cipitate or cloudiness indicates the presence of animal size. 
Hefelmann recommends the following method : — Boil 10 
grammes of the paper in pieces, in a porcelain dish, with 
120 c.cs. of water till about 25 c.cs. water are left, filter 
off the liquid into a flask, add 5 grammes of potassium 
sulphate, and shake well, in order to precipitate the gelatine or 
glue in a flocculent state. The precipitate is then filtered off, 



174 

washed to the bottom of the filter, the top part of the latter 
torn off, and the lower part, with the precipitate, dried by 
pressing between blotting paper. This is then mixed with 
soda lime, placed in a small combustion tube, and the latter 
heated in a furnace or over a long gas flame. The gases 
issuing from the tube are then tested for ammonia with 
moistened red litmus paper, or by vapour of HC1 in the usnal 
way. 

Resin Size. — Half a sheet of the sample is torn up into 
small pieces, placed in a beaker, and absolute alcohol poured 
over it. Place the beaker and contents in hot water for 30 
minutes or so. Both resin and resinate of alumina are dissolved 
by the alcohol, and if the solution be poured into distilled 
water a milky precipitate (or cloudiness) will be produced if 
resin is present. 

Starch. — The presence of starch is best ascertained by 
immersing a strip of the paper in a very weak solution of 
iodine (in aqueous potassium iodide). A blue coloration will 
be formed if this body is present. 

Free Acid. — " Congo red " is recommended by Hertzberg 
as a reagent for showing the presence of free acid in papers, 
alsomethyorange (Dimethylaniline-orange). The latter istrans- 
formed from bright yellow to purple red by acids, whilst acid 
salts — e.g., alum and sulphate alumina — effect no such change. 

Mechanical Wood. — There are many reagents for 
indicating the presence of mechanical wood in papers, the 
following being the most important. 

Sulphate op Aniline. — Paper containing mechanical 
wood steeped in a hot 5 per cent, aqueous solution of this salt 
turns a bright yellow, the depth of colour being proportionate 
to the amount of wood present. Pure cellulose papers are not 
changed. Esparto papers turn a faint pink. An alcoholic 
solution of Orcin, to which H CI has been aided, yields a 
powerful dark red coloration with mechanical wood. 

Resorcine, dissolved in alcohol containing H CI, colours 
wood blue-violet. Pure cellulose papers remain unchanged. 

Phloroglucine (4 grammes in 25 c.cs. alcohol and 5 c.cs. 
pure concentrated H Clj colours wood an intense red. This is 
the most delicate test for mechanical wood in papers. 

7. Determination op the Strength op the Sizing. — 
The Leonhardi-Post method consists in placing uniform drops 
of an aqueous solution of chloride of iron, containing 1 - 531 per 
cent, of iron, upon samples of the paper, and allowing the iron 
solution to soak into the sheet for as many seconds as the paper 
weighs in grammes per square metre. The unabsorbed fluid 



175 

is then immediately removed with blotting or filter paper, and 
the water allowed to evaporate. When this has been repeated 
4 or 5 times, the paper is reversed and painted with' an aqueous 
solution of tannic acid, the excess of this fluid being removed 
with filter paper as formerly. The tannic acid acts upon the 
chloride of iron which has passed through the paper, causing 
a black stain, the intensity of which is a measure of the 
strength of the sizing. A number of tests should be made in 
each case to obtain an average. 



WOOD PULPS. 

Sindall has made exhaustive experiments respecting the 
methods of sampling, &c, wood pulps, and recommends the 
following: — 

The Sample. — Moist Pulp. Two per cent, of the number 
of bales composing the consignment is considered sufficient, 
provided the weight of the whole bulk calculated from this 
2 per cent, agrees with the gross weight actually found. 
Five sheets are taken from each bale to be sampled — one 
from the centre, two on each side midway from centre to 
outside, and two taken one inch from the outside of the bale. 
These sheets are then divided by imaginary lines into four 
rectangular parts, and pieces are cut out from the centre of 
the four rectangles. These pieces are at once transferred to 
a light glass bottle which may be previously tared. Dry Pulp. 
Sheets are selected from different parts of the bale as 
above described, and small strips, 6 inches long by half an inch 
wide, cut from a spot near to each of the four corners, and 
one from the centre. These strips are also at once transferred 
to a clean, dry bottle. Samples can be taken in duplicate. 

Testing the samples. — The bottle and its contents should 
be weighed previous to removing the sample to the water 
bath for drying, and by deducting the tare of the bottle the 
correct weight of the moist sample is obtained. The moist 
sample may also be weighed by itself before drying, as a 
check on the other weight. The sample is then placed 
on a shallow tray of wire gauze and transferred to a water 
bath, where it remains till the weight is constant. The 
temperature of the bath or water oven should not be less 
than 212° Fah. An air bath may also be used, whose 
temperature should never exceed 219° Fah. Schopper's 
apparatus, consisting of a balance and air bath, permits of 
the operation of drying and weighing the dried sample 
without removing it from the air bath, and can be recom- 
mended for testing all kinds of moist and air-dry pulps. 



176 



The results are usually expressed in per cents, of air-dry 
pulp — that is, pulp containing 10 per cent, of moisture 
(England). Obviously oven-dry weight, multiplied by 100 
and divided by 90, gives this air- dry weight. The following 
table of simple formulae has been constructed with a view to 
tersely express the various calculations in ascertaining the 
moisture, &c, in pulps : — 



Found. 
Letter A = 


Required. 


Formula. 


% Absolutely dry pulp. 

% Air- dry pulp. 

% Total moisture. 
% Excess moisture. 
% Excess moisture. 


% Air- dry pulp. 

% Absolutely dry pulp. 

% Air-dry pulp. 

% Air- dry pulp. 

% Absolutely dry pulp. 


100 A 

90 

90 A 

100 

(100— A) 100 


90 

100— A 

(100— A) 90 

100 



The British Wood Pulp Association and the English and 
Scottish Paper Makers' Association have officially compiled 
and issued a test certificate form for the use of analysts, of 
which the following is a copy : — 



177 
WOOD PULP MOISTURE TEST. 



ANALYST'S CERTIFICATE. _ Adopted by the British 

Wood Pulp Association and the 

English and Scottish Paper Makers' Associations. 



J9 



TLhlS 15 tO Certify that w * have tested for moisture 

a parcel of pulp, said to consist of 

bales, marked 

lying at. 

The samples were drawn by on k 



Number of bales sampled 

Total gross weight of (intact) 

bales sampled. (For numbers Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. 

and detailed weights see below) ; : : 



Weight of parcel calculated from Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. 

above i : i 

Percentage of absolutely dry 

pulp in the sample per cent. 

Percentage of moisture in the 

sample per cent 

Percentage of air dry or moist pulp in the sample, on the 
basis of — 

90=100 (Air-dry) percent 

45=100 (Moist) percent 

Percentage of ex- (Moisture { 

cess \Fibre... $ percent. 

Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. 

Weight of pulp to be invoiced... : ! I 

£ s. d. 

Fees ... : : 

Expenses : : 

Analyst 

Date . __ , 



To. 



12 



178 
CHAPTER VI. 

LOADING MATERIALS. 

Loadings are employed to give weight to a sheet of paper, 
to render it opaque, and to impart a certain smoothness of 
surface (especially in the case of china clay or kaolin) to make 
the sheet of paper more absorbent or susceptible to printing 
inks. Their properties vary somewhat as detailed below. 

China Clay" is the most important mineral loading used 
in the manufacture of paper and is essentially a hydrated 
silicate of alumina of the general formula A1 2 3 2 Si0 2 
2H 2 0. According to this formula it should contain 39-72 
per cent. A1 3 3 ; 46-36 per cent. Si0 2 and 13-92 per cent, 
of water, which is substantially the composition of the com- 
mercial clay when freed from undecomposed rock. Sp. gr. 
2-20 to 2-60. It is the product of the natural disintegration 
of felspar, and occurs in large deposits in Cornwall and Dorset- 
shire, which counties have provided the main sources of 
supply in England for many years. To prepare it for industrial 
purposes, the clay deposits are largely diluted with pure water 
and the resulting milky fluid passed in succession through 
a series of settling areas in which the fine clay deposits. By 
this system of levigation deposits of varying degrees of fineness 
are obtained. When the areas are full, the surface water 
is drained off and the clay allowed to dry sufficiently to be 
handled with a shovel in blocks. The partly-dried clay is 
then removed and further dried in stacks before shipment. 
In the air-dried state, china clay is white or nearly so. When 
moistened with water it assumes a more or less greyish tint, 
which, however, disappears again on drying at 212 Fan. 
It loses water on ignition at a red heat, and if iron be present 
in quantity the ignited clay assumes a yellow colour due to 
the presence of ferric oxide. China clay may be added 
direct to the beating engine for most printing and cheap 
writing papers, but if it be preferred, it may be previously 
mixed into a thick cream with water in a tank containing an 
agitator and passed through a fine brass sieve having 70 meshes 
to the linear inch. The impurities separated by the sieve are 
grit and jute fibres, the latter derived from the jute bags 
in which it is frequently packed for export. Some manu- 
facturers add from 5 to 10 per cent, of starch to the clay 
prior to or after heating and straining, in order to cause it to 
adhere more readily to the fibres. In some cases this is 
advantageous. Rosin size no doubt facilitates the adhesion of 
the clay to the fibres as well. The peculiarities imparted to 
the paper by the presence of this loading are opaqueness^ 



179 

whiteness, and increased softness of surface. It also increases 
the absorbing power of the paper to printers' ink, thereby 
allowing a clear impression of the type and illustration to be 
run off rapidly. The soft greasy character of the clay produces 
this effect, while its great fineness enables it to be distributed 
very evenly and intimately throughout the texture of the 
paper. It has also a certain affinity for aniline dyes that adds 
to its value in the production of tinted papers. Next to 
colour, the most important item in the purity of china clay is 
its freedom from grit and dirt. Of 100 parts of clay added 
to the beater, from 60 to 75 parts can be obtained direct in 
the paper, depending upon the amount of mineral matter 
required as ash in the finished sheet, but if an efficient system 
of utilising the sedimentary matter in the " back " water 
from the paper machine be in use, the yield can be increased 
to 85 or 90 per cent. The following is an analysis of a com- 
mercial china clay, viz. : — Al 2 O n , 39-37 per cent. ; Si0 o 
45-89 per cent. ; CaO 00*35 per cent.; MgO 00*4 per cent."; 
FeO, 00-23 per cent. ; combined water, 10-80 per cent. ; 
hygroscopic water, 2-45 per cent. ; alkaline bases, &c, 00-50 
per cent. The iron in china clays usually exists in the ferrous 
state. 

Sulphate op Lime. — This loading is known in commerce 
under various names, such as pearl and crystal hardening, 
terra alba, gypsum, &c. These various kinds although 
alike in chemical composition, namely. Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 
yet differ from one another in physical properties and in the 
effects they produce. Pearl and crystal hardening are the 
purest and finest forms of this loading. When dry they 
correspond in composition to pure sulphate of lime, Ca S0 4 

+ 2 H 2 O, and contain 79-07 per cent, Ca S0 4 , and 20-93 psr 
cent, of water of crystallisation. Both are prepared artificially 
by precipitation. For this purpose a solution of saltcake 
or crude sulphate of soda, previously freed from iron and 
sedimentary matter by precipitation with lime or soda, is 
added to a solution of chloride of calcium, whereby hydra ted 
sulphate of lime is thrown down from the solution thus : — 
Na 2 S0 4 + CaCl 2 + aqua = Ca S0 4 + 2 H,0 +2 NaCl. 
The precipitate is washed and finally dried in a hydro extractor. 
As it occurs in the market it is a pure, soft, white substance, 
somewhat plastic to the touch, free from grit or large crystals 
and contains about 13 per cent, of hygroscopic water. An 
analysis of the commercial article gave Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 

=86-8 per cent.; hygroscopic water, 13-2 per cent. It imparts 
to the paper a greater degree of whiteness than china clay, 
but does not bulk so well. It has a tendency to stiffen the 
paper, and papers loaded with it glaze and print well. Owing 
to its opacity, great whiteness, &c, it is used for the finest 



180 

grades of writing papers. Terra Alba, Gypsum. — Both 
of these are sulphate of lime, found in extensive natural 
deposits in England and Nova Scotia, &c., of greater 
or less purity. The rock from which terra alba is 
prepared is colourless, or nearly so, and is practically pure 
Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 0. The crystalline material is ground to 
an impalpable powder while perfectly dry, and contains a 
greater percentage of Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 than pearl hardening. 
It is also specifically heavier and has a greater tendency to 
settle out in the sand trap. It imparts somewhat different 
characteristics to the paper loaded with it, the surface being 
harder and less absorbent. It does not absorb aniline dyes 
so readily nor possesses such whitening properties as the 
artificial loading. As these different forms of sulphate of 
lime are all soluble to a certain extent in water, there is loss 
through solution while using them. Artificially piepared 
pearl hardening passes into solution more readily than the 
native mineral, terra alba, due to the difference in their 
physical condition. To minimise this tendency to dissolve, 
the pearl hardening is mixed with 10 per cent, of its weight 
of starch and the mixture made into a thick paste with water 
by boiling. One hundred parts of water (10 galls.) dissolve 
at the normal temperature 0-224 parts of anhydrous sulphate 
of lime Ca SO 4 = 0-283 parts (0-283 lbs.) of the crystalline 
salt, CaS0 4 +2H 2 0. It is more soluble in cold than in 
hot water between limits. Owing to its solubility it is obvious 
that as the volume of water used in the beating engine and on 
the paper machine is nearly constant for similar classes of 
papers, the less mineral required, the greater is the propor- 
tionate loss ; or, the more sulphate of lime required in the 
paper, the greater the proportionate yield on the weight of 
sulphate used. This loss is greatly lessened by the use of 
the " back " water in the beating engines and service or mixing 
box of the paper machine. As hydrated sulphate of lime 
does not lose its water of hydration when heated to 212 Fah., 
it follows that the loading retains this water of hydration in 
the paper after passing over the drying cylinders, and that 
the ash of the paper obtained by ignition at a red heat repre« 
sents substantially the loading less its water of hydration. 
An allowance or addition should therefore be made for the 
latter. The same holds good for china clay. As one part 
of anhydrous Ca S0 4 is equivalent to 1-264 parts of Ca S0 4 
+ 2 H 2 0, the percentage of Ca S0 4 found in the ash multi- 
plied by 1-264 will give the true percentage of dry loading, 
whether this be pearl hardening or terra alba, i.e., dry as far 
as hygroscopic water is concerned. In the case of china clay, 
since this contains 13-92 per cent, of combined water, one 
parts of anhydrous clay (such as. is obtained as ash in the 



181 

paper) corresponds to 1-161 part of dry hydrated clay. Multi- 
ply, therefore, the percentage of ash by 1-161 to find the true 
percentage of dry clay used. These facts should not be over- 
looked when comparing the relative yields of sulphate of lime 
loadings with china clay. 

Talc is essentially a silicate of magnesia of the formula 
4 MgO 5 Si0 2 H 2 0, and occurs in Nature very widely 
distributed in masses as the mineral steatite or soap-stone. 
Its composition according to the formula is Si0 2 = 62-14 
per cent. ; MgO = 32-92 per cent. ; water = 4 -94 per cent. 
As a rule the mineral varies but little from this composition. 
Occasionally it contains ferric oxide, but these varieties are 
rejected when the mineral is intended for paper making. 
Sp. gr. 2-6 to 2-8. It occurs in a great variety of colours, 
but only the white or nearly white mineral is used as a loading. 
This is ground by suitable machinery to an impalpable powder 
and sieved, the sieved portion being alone used. It is, of 
course, insoluble in water, and when made from the nearly 
white mineral yields results in point of colour superior to the 
general run of china clays. It being specifically heavier 
than china clay and also artificially ground, it has a greater 
tendency to settle in the sand trap of the machine, but in 
ordinary cases the yield obtained from it- is as great as that 
from china clay. Notwithstanding this mineral has a soapy 
feel when rubbed between the fingers like china clay, it imparts 
a slightly different property to the paper, but only in degree, 
not in kind. 

Asbestine closely resembles talc in properties, and as the 
name implies, is made from asbestos rock by grinding and 
sifting. The powder is anhydrous, of a pure white colour, 
sp. gr. 2*99, and, examined under the microscope, has a 
somewhat fibrous appearance, in virtue of which it is claimed 
to possess greater adhesive properties than other loadings. 
Papers containing it when subjected to great pressure or 
friction become highly glazed, and owing to its non-hygro- 
scopic properties it is said the gloss is more lasting than that 
obtained with other loadings. The surface, however, is 
hard and unyielding. As a general rule a yield of from 
70 to 85 per cent, is obtained with ordinary care in papers 
containing average quantities of the mineral. 

Blanc-Fixe and Barytes. — Both of these are sulphate 
of barium, BaS0 4 , the former artificially prepared, whilst 
the latter is found native. Barytes is a heavy mineral very 
abundantly distributed, and when used as a loading is ground 
to a fine powder. Its sp. gr. is very high, viz. : 4-73, and 
application in the paper manufacture somewhat limited. 
Blanc-fixe on the other hand, occurs in commerce as a thick 
paste, and is thrown down as a pure white, very finely divided 



182 

precipitate when a soluble sulphate such as sulphate of soda 
or magnesia is added to an aqueous solution of chloride of 
barium. The precipitate is allowed to subside, is washed 
frequently by decantation, and finally dried to the consistency 
of a thick paste. In this form, mixed frequently with hydrate 
of alumina, it is used for coating papers, either white or 
coloured. As a loading it is best produced in the beating 
engine itself by adding crystallised barium chloride dissolved 
in hot water and filtered through a linen cloth to the stuff 
in the beater after sizing. The BaS0 4 thus formed is in 
a very fine state of division, is pure white and imparts this 
characteristic to the paper. It is not extensively used in 
this way, and only then for special papers. 

Satin White is often employed in place of blanc-fixe 
in the production of stained and other papers, and according 
to the Papier Zeitung is essentially a mixture of precipitated 
carbonates of magnesia or lime and hydrate of alumina. 
It can be made in three grades as follows : — 

Grade I is produced by dissolving 100 kilos of magnesium 
chloride in 200 or 300 litres of hot water and filtering through 
a linen filter cloth into a large vat. To this solution there is 
added, while hot, a filtered hot solution of ammonia soda 
so long as a precipitate of carbonate of magnesia is formed 
which can readily be ascertained by the fluccose separation 
of MgC0 3 . In a small vessel dissolve 75 kilos of carbonate 
of soda in hot water, filter through linen cloth into a larger 
vat and add to it with, constant stirring a clear solution of 
100 kilos of sulphate of alumina free from iron. The aluminium 
hydrate thus obtained is then washed a few times by decan- 
tation with hot water, and afterwards the precipitated car- 
bonate of magnesia is added with constant stirring. Finally, 
the mixed precipitates are filtered and pressed in linen bags. 
To obtain the satin white of a good colour it is necessary to 
use pure water and sulphate of alumina and magnesium 
chloride free from iron salts. 

Grade II is obtained by grinding 100 kilos of burnt lime 
in a wet mill (edge runners), preparing same into a finely- 
divided milk of lime and washing into a vat through a fine 
brass sieve. In a smaller receptacle dissolve about 45 kilos 
of soda ash in hot water, and, after filtration, slowly add this 
solution to the lime, stirring incessantly. It is essential to 
dilute as much as possible. In another vessel dissolve 100 
kilos pure sulphate of alumina in hot water, filter and add 
to the contents of the first vat with continued stirring. After 
stirring for some time, wash with pure hot water, filter and 
press thoroughly. 

Grade III is obtained in the same manner as Grade II 
excepting that 130 or 140 kilos of burnt lime are used. 



181 



CHAPTER Vli. 



GENERAL CHEMICAL TABLES. 

Ammonia. Soda (Carbonate) is almost pure carbonate of soda, 
having the following composition : — Carbonate of soda, 98 - 94 % ; 
snlphate of soda, - 34 % ; chloride of sodium, 0-36 % ; moisture, 
0*20 % ; insoluble matter, ferric oxide, alumina, &c, - 10 %. 
This is the purest form of commercial carbonate of soda known. 




184 



Specific Gravity op 


Solutions of Sodium Carbonate. 




@ 60° Fah. = 15 c C. 


(Lunge). 






Percentage by 


1 cubic foot of solution 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Twaddell. 


Weight. 




contains 


















Na 2 0. 


Na 2 C0 3 


Na 2 0. 


Na 2 CO., 


48% Ash. 


1-005 


1 


0-28 


047 


0-172 


0-294 


0-358 


1-010 


9 


0.56 


0-95 


0-350 


0-598 


0-728 


1-015 


o 


0-84 


1-42 


0-525 


0-888 


1-094 


1-020 


4 


l-ll 


1-90 


0-707 


1-209 


1-473 


1-025 


5 


1-39 


2-38 


0-889 


1-521 


1-853 


1-030 


6 


1-67 


2-85 


1-070 


1-830 


2-^30 


1-035 


7 


1-95 


3-33 


1-257 


2-149 


2-618 


1-040 


8 


2-22 


3-80 


1-441 


2-464 


3-002 


1-045 


9 


2-50 


4 28 


1-631 


2-788 


3-397 


1-050 


10 


2-78 


4-76 


1-852 


3-116 


3-797 


1-055 


11 


3-06 


5-23 


2-012 


3-440 


4-192 


1-060 


12 


3-34 


5-71 


2-206 


3-772 


4-596 


1-065 


13 


3-61 


6-17 


2-396 


4-097 


4-992 


1-070 


14 


3-88 


6-64 


2-591 


4-430 


5-397 


1-075 


15 


4-16 


7-10 


2-783 


4-759 


5-799 


1-080 


16 


4-42 


7-57 


2-981 


5-098 


6-211 


1-085 


17 


4-70 


8-04 


3-181 


5-439 


6-627 


1-090 


18 


4.97 


8-51 


3-382 


5-783 


7-046 


1-095 


19 


5-24 


8-97 


3-582 


6-125 


7-462 


1-100 


20 


5-52 


9-43 


3-783 


6-468 


7-880 


1-105 


21 


5-79 


9-90 


3-989 


6-821 


8-311 


1-110 


22 


6-06 


10-37 


4-197 


7-177 


8-745 


1-115 


23 


6-33 


10-83 


4-403 


7-529 


9-174 


1-120 


24 


6-61 


11-30 


4-615 


7-891 


9-613 


1.125 


25 


6-88 


11-76 


4-825 


8-249 


10-050 


1-130 


26 


7-15 


12-23 


5-040 


8-617 


10-500 


1-135 


27 


7-42 


12-70 


5-256 


8-988 


10-951 


1-140 


28 


7-70 


13-16 


5-465 


9-354 


11-396 


1-145 


29 


7-97 


13-63 


5-691 


9-731 


11-857 


1-150 


30 


8-24 


14-09 


5-908 


10-103 


12-310 



185 



Specific Gravity of Solutions of Caustic Soda 




@ 60° Fah. = 15° C. 




(Lunge.) 




Grammes 




Grammes 




Grammes 


Twadde 1 . 


per litre 


Twaddell. 


per litre 


Twaddell. 


per litre 




Na 2 0. 




Na 2 O. 




Na„ O. 


1 


3-7 


2Q 


100-5 


51 


223-4 


9 


7*5 


27 


105-0 


52 


228-9 


3 


11-3 


28 


109-6 


53 


234-4 


4 


15-1 


29 


114-1 


54 


240-0 


5 


18-8 


30 


118-6 


55 


245-5 


6 


22-6 


31 


123-2 


56 


251-0 


7 


26-4 


32 


127-7 


57 


256-6 


8 


30-2 


33 


132.2 


58 


262-1 


9 


33-9 


34 


136-8 


59 


267-6 


10 


37-7 


35 


141-3 


60 


273-2 


11 


41-6 


36 


145-8 


61 


279-3 


12 


45-5 


37 


150-4 


62 


285-4 


13 


49-4 


38 


154-9 


63 


291-5 


14 


53-2 


39 


159-4 


64 


297-7 


15 


571 


40 


164-0 


65 


303-8 


16 


61 -0 


41 


169-4 


GG 


309-9 


17 


64-9 


42 


174-7 


67 


316-0 


18 


68-8 


43 


180-1 


68 


322-2 


19 


72-7 


44 


185-5 


69 


328-3 


20 


76-5 


45 


190-9 


70 


334-4 


21 


80-4 


46 


196-3 


71 


340-8 


22 


84-3 


47 


201-7 


72 


347-2 


23 


88-2 


48 


207-0 


73 


353-6 


24 


92-1 


49 


212-4 


74 


360-1 


25 


96-0 


50 


217-8 


75 


366-5 


Note 


— To find lbs. soda (Na 2 O) per cubic foot divide 




grammes per litre by 16. 



186 









TABLE 








Showing the amount of 70 


per cent., 60 per cent 


, 


and " 


Cream " Caustic Sodas, 


and of Eeal Soda (N 


a 2 0) 




in their solutions of different densities. 




- 










(Beveridge.) 






White 


White 


Cream Caustic 


Specific 


Degrees 


70% Caustic. 


60% Caustic. 


60% Na, O. 


100 cc. 


contain 


100 cc. 


contain 


100 cc. 


contain 


Gravity 
at 


Twaddell 

at 


























62° Fah. 


62° Fah. 


Dry 

r -o% 

Caustic. 


Soda 
(Na„ O). 


Dry 

60% 
Caustic. 


Soda 
(Na 2 O). 


Dry 

Cream 
Caustic. 


Soda 
(Na 2 O). 






grins. 


grms. 


grms. 


grms. 


grms. 


grms. 


1-005 


1 


•44 


•30 


•46 


•27 


•50 


•29 


1-010 


2 


•89 


•61 


•94 


•55 


1-00 


•59 


1-015 


3 


1-33 


•91 


1-41 


•83 


1-51 


•89 


1-020 


4 


1-78 


l - 22 


1-97 


1-15 


2-02 


1-19 


1-025 


5 


2*22 


1-53 


2-38" 


1-41 


2-52 


1-49 


1-030 


6 


2-67 


1-84 


2-81 


1-66 


3-02 


1-78 


1-035 


7 


3-12 


2-15 


3-30 


1-95 


3-50 


2-07 


1-040 


8 


3-61 


2-49 


3-83 


2-26 


3-98 


2-35 


1-045 


9 


4-11 


2-84 


4-36 


2-58 


4-52 


2-67 


1-050 


10 


4-61 


3-18 


4-83 


2-88 


5-06 


2-99 


1-055 


11 


5-10 


3-52 


5-41 


3-20 


5-60 


3-31 


1-060 


12 


5-60 


3-87 


5-94 


3-51 


6-14 


3-63 


1-065 


13 


6-10 


4-21 


6-48 


3-83 


6-69 


3-96 


1-070 


14 


6-60 


4-56 


7-02 


4-15 


7-26 


4-29 


1-075 


15 


7-16 


4-94 


7-57 


4-48 


7-85 


4-64 


1-080 


16 


7-73 


5-34 


8-12 


4-80 


8-43 


4-99 


1-085 


17 


8-29 


5-72 


8-67 


5-13 


9-03 


5-34 


1-090 


18 


8-86 


6-12 


9-23 


5-46 


9-65 


5-71 


1-095 


19 


9-43 


6-51 


9-81 


5-80 


10-28 


6-08 


1-100 


20 


9-99 


6-90 


10-41 


6-16 


10-93 


6-47 


1-105 


21 


10-56 


7-29 


11-02 


6-52 


11-60 


6-86 


1-110 


22 


11-12 


7-68 


11-66 


6-90 


12-28 


7-27 


1-115 


23 


11-69 


8-07 


12-32 


7-29 


12-99 


7-59 


1-120 


24 


12-26 


8-47 


13-00 


7-69 


13-70 


8-11 


1-125 


25 


12-82 


8-85 


13-70 


8-11 


14-41 


8-53 


1-130 


20 


13-40 


9-26 


14-42 


8-53 


15-20 


8-99 




Note. — 


The ab 


ove val 


ues are 


not abs 


olute. 





187 



BLEACHING POWDER AND BLEACH LIQUOR. 

Bleaching powder should contain at least 35 per cent, of 
available chlorine. The following analysis shows the com- 
position of the English-made article — viz., available chlorine, 
'65-60%; chlorine as calcium chloride, 2*80 % ; chlorine as 
calcium chlorate, " traces ; '; carbonic acid, 1 40 % ; lime (Ca O) 
46 11 %. Water, &c. (by difference), 14-09 %. 

One cwt. (112 lbs.) of dry bleaching powder, containing 



36 to 



of available chlorine, will yield- 
250 gallons of bleach liquor of 5° Twaddell. 



208 

178^ 

156 

139 

125 



6 C 
7° 
8° 
9° 
10° 



The loss in making bleach liquor in paper mills varies from 
2^ to 7^ per cent., reckoned on the dry weight used, according 
to the mode of making and apparatus employed. 



TABLE showing the available chlorine and dry bleaching 


powder in bleach liquor of different densities at 15° C. 




(Founded on Lunge and Beichofen.) 




Degrees 
Twaddell. 
©15^0. 


Available 


Available 


Dry 35 % 


Specific Gravity 


Chlorine, 


Chlorine, 


Bleaching 


@15°C. 


grammes 


lbs. 


Powder, 




per litre. 


per irallon. 


lbs. per gal Ion. 


a -ooo 





trace 






1-0025 


i 


1-40 


0-0140 


0-040 


1-0050 


1 


271 


0-0271 


0-0774 


1-0100 


2 


5-5S 


0-0558 


0-1594 


1 -0150 


3 


8-48 


0-0848 


0-2420 


1-020 


4 


11-41 


0-H41 


0-3260 


1-025 


5 


14-47 


0-1447 


0-4134 


1-030 


6 


17-36 


0-1736 


0-4960 


1-035 


7 


20-44 


0-2044 


0-5840 


1-040 


8 


23 '75 


0-2375 


0-6785 


1045 


9 


26-62 


0-2662 


0-7605 


1-050 


10 


29-41 


0-2941 


0-8402 


1055 


11 


32-68 


0-3268 


0-9408 


1-060 


12 


35-81 


0-3581 


1-0231 


1-065 


13 


39-10 


3910 


1-1171 


1-070 


14 


42-31 


0-4231 


1-2089 


1-075 


15 


45-70 


0-4570 


1-3057 


1-080 


16 


48-96 


0-4896 


1-3971 


1-085 


17 


52-27 


0-5227 


1-4914 


1-090 


18 


55-18 


0-5518 


1-5765 


1-095 


19 


58-33 


0-5833 


1-6637 


1-100 


20 


61-50 


0-6150 


1-7571 


1-105 


21 


64-50 


0-6450 


1-8428 



188 



Specific Gravity of Solutions of Pure Sulphate 








of Alumina @ 


60° Fah. 


= 15° C. 


100 Litres of the Sulphate 


of Alumina Solution contain 


Specific 


Degrees 


Al„ O., 


so.. 


Sulphate with 








Gravity. 


Twaddell. 


Kilos. 


Kilos. 


13% Al 2 O,, 
Kilos. 


14% Al 2 ;1 
Kilos. 


15% Al 2 0., 
Kilos. 


1-005 


1 


0-14 


0-33 


1-1 


1 


0-9 


1-010 


2 


0-2S 


0-65 


2'2 


2 


1-9 


1-016 


3-2 


0-42 


9-98 


3-2 


3 


2-8 


1-021 


4-2 


0-56 


1-31 


4-3 


4 


3-7 


1-028 


5 - 2 


0-70 


1-63 


5-4 


5 


4-7 


1-031 


6-2 


0-84 


1-96 


6-5 


6 


5-6 


1-036 


7-2 


0.98 


2-28 


7-5 


7 


6-5 


1-040 


8-0 


1-12 


2-61 


8-6 


8 


7-5 


1-045 


9-0 


1-26 


2-94 


9-7 


9 


8-4 


1-050 


10-0 


1-40 


3*26 


10 -s 


10 


9-3 


1-055 


11-0 


1-54 


3-59 


11-8 


11 


10-3 


1-059 


11-8 


1-68 


3-91 


12-9 


12 


11-2 


1-064 


12-8 


1-82 


4-24 


14-0 


13 


12-1 


1-068 


13-6 


1-96 


4-57 


15-1 


14 


13-1 


1-073 


14-6 


2-10 


4-89 


16-2 


15 


14-0 


1-078 


15-6 


2-24 


5-22 


17*2 


16 


14-9 


1-082 


16-4 


2-38 


5 '55 


18-3 


17 


15-9 


1-087 


17-2 


2-58 


5-87 


19-4 


18 


16-8 


1-092 


18-4 


2-66 


6-20 


20-5 


19 


17-7 


1-096 


19-2 


2-80 


6-52 


21-5 


20 


18-7 


1-101 


20-2 


2-94 


6-85 


22-6 


21 


19-6 


1-105 


21-0 


3-08 


7-18 


23-7 


22 


20-5 


1-110 


22-0 


3-22 


7-50 


24-8 


23 


21-5 


1-114 


22-8 


3-36 


7-83 


25-9 


24 


22-4 


1-119 


23-8 


3-50 


8*16 


26-9 


25 


23-3 


1-123 


24-6 


3-64 


8*44 


2S-0 


26 


24-3 


1-128 


25-6 


3-78 


8-81 


29-1 


27 


25-2 


1-132 


26-4 


3-92 


9-13 


30-2 


28 


26-1 


1-137 


27-2 


4-06 


9-46 


31-2 


29 


27-1 


1-141 


28-2 


4-20 


9-79 


32-3 


3) 


28-0 


1 -145 


29-0 


4-34 


10-11 


33-4 


31 


28-9 


1 -150 


30-0 


4-48 


10-44 


34-5 


32 


29-9 


1-154 


30-8 


4-64 


10-76 


35-5 


33 


30 -S 


1-159 


31-8 


4-76 


11-09 


36-6 


34 


31-7 


1-163 


32-6 


4-90 


11-42 


37-7 


35 


32-7 


1-168 


33-6 


5-04 


11-74 


38-8 


36 


33-6 


1-172 


34-4 


5-18 


12-07 


: 39-9 


37 


34-5 


1-176 


35-2 


5-32 


12-40 


40-9 


3S 


35-5 


1-181 


36'2 


5-46 


12'72 


42-0 


39 


36-4 


1-185 


37-0 


5-60 


13-05 


43-1 


40 


37-3 


1-190 


38-0 


5-74 


13-38 


44-2 


41 


38-3 


1-194 


3S-8 


5-88 


13-70 


45-2 


42 


39-2 



189 



Specific Gravity of Solutions of 


Puke Sulphate 


of Alumina @ 60° Pah.: 


= 15° C. 


100 Litres of the Sulphate of Alumina Solution contain 


Specific 


Degrees 


Al 2 3 


SO 3 


Sulphate with 








Gravity. 


Twaddell. 


Kilos. 


Kilos. 


13% AL O n 
Kilos. 


14% AL 3 
Kilos. 


15% AL 3 
Kilos. 


1-198 


39.6 


6-02 


14.03 


46-3 


43 


40-1 


1-203 


40-6 


6-16 


14-35 


47-4 


44 


41-1 


1-207 


41-4 


6-30 


14-68 


48-5 


45 


42-0 


1-211 


42-2 


6-44 


15*01 


49-5 


46 


42-9 


1-215 


43-0 


6-58 


15-33 


50-6 


47 


43-9 


1-220 


44-0 


6-72 


15-66 


51-7 


48 


44-8 


1-224 


44*8 


6-86 


15-99 


52-8 


49 


457 


1-228 


45-6 


7-00 


16-31 


53-9 


50 


46-7 


1-232 


46-4 


7-14 


16-64 


54-9 


51 


47*6 


1-236 


47-2 


7-28 


16-96 


56-0 


52 


48-5 


1-240 


48-0 


7-42 


17'29 


57-1 


53 


49-5 


1-244 


48-8 


7-56 


17-62 


58-2 


54 


50-4 


1-248 


49-6 


7-70 


17-94 


59-2 


55 


51-3 


1-252 


50-4 


7-84 


18-27 


60-3 


56 


52-3 


1-256 


51-2 


7-98 


18-59 


61-4 


57 


53-2 


1-261 


52"2 


8-12 


18-92 


62-5 


58 


54-1 


1-265 


53-0 


8-26 


19-25 


63-5 


59 


55-1 


1-269 


53-8 


8-40 


19-57 


64-6 


60 


56-0 


1-273 


54 6 


8-54. 


19-90 


65-7 


61 


56-9 


1-277 


55-4 


8-68 


20-23 


66-8 


62 


57-9 


1-281 


56-2 


8-82 


20-55 


67-9 


63 


58-8 


1-285 


57-0 


8 96 


20-88 


68-9 


64 


59-7 


1-289 


57-8 


9 10 


21-20 


70-0 


65 


60-7 


1-293 


58-6 


9-24 


21-53 


71-1 


66 


616 


1-297 


59-4 


9-38 


21-86 


72-2 


67 


62-5 


1-301 


60-2 


9-52 


22-18 


73-2 


68 


63-5 


1305 


61-0 


9-66 


22-51 


74-3 


69 


64-4 


1-309 


61-8 


9-80 


22 -S4 


75 4 


70 


65-3 


1-312 


62-4 


9 94 


23-16 


76-5 


71 


66-3 


1316 


63-2 


10-08 


23-49 


77 - 5 


72 


67-2 


1-320 


64-0 


10-22 


23-81 


78-6 


73 


68-1 


1-324 


64-8 


10-36 


24-14 


79-7 


74 


691 


1-328 


65-6 


10-50 


24-47 


80-8 


75 


70'0 


1-331 


66-2 


10-64 


24-79 


81-8 


76 


70-9 


1-335 


67-0 


10-78 


25-12 


82-9 


77 


71-9 


1-339 


67-8 


10-92 


25-45 


84-0 


7S 


72-8 


ALUMINOFERRIC. 




Composition.— 14-00 % soluble Al 2 ;; , - 75 


X Fe 2 O ft , 0-50 % Free 


Acid, 0-15 % insoluble matter. 




100 parts by weight of water at 60° Fall. 


dissolve^ 122 parts by 


weight of Aluminoferric, forming a satura 


;ed solution having a 


sp. gravity of 1*33, equal to 66° Twaddell. 




One gallon of this saturated solution at 60 


° Fah. contains 7 -5 lbs. 


of solid Aluminoferric. 





190 



PERCENTAGE OF SULPHUROUS ACID (S0 2 ) 


IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF THE GAS. 


Specific Gravity 
at 15° C. 


Degrees 
Twaddell. 


% S0. 2 . 


1-0056 


1-12 


1-0 


1-0113 


2-65 


2-0 


1-0221 


4-45 


3-0 


1-0275 


5-50 


4-0 


1-0328 


6-56 


5-0 


1-0377 


7-54 


6-0 


1-0426 


8-52 


7-0 


1-0474 


9-48 


8-0 


1-0520 


10-40 


9-0 



Specific Gravity or the Saturated Solutions op 
Some Salts and the Percentage or Anhydrous 
Salt contained in the Solutions at Saturated 
Point. (Gerlach & Kremer's.) 


Name of the Salt 


Tempera- 
ture 


Saturated Solution. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Anhydrous 
Salt. 


Chloride of Sodium ... Na CI 
„ Calcium ... Ca Cl 2 
,, Barium ... BaCl 2 
Carbonate of Soda ... Na 2 C0 3 
Sulphate of Soda ... Na 2 S0 4 


15 
15 
15 
15 
15 


1 -20433 
1-41104 
1-28267 
1-15350 
1-11170 


26-395 

40-66 

25-97 

14-354 

11-952 



191 



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196 



WEIGHTS OF ONE 




CUBIC EOOT OF DIFFERENT KINDS 


OF 


RAW MATERIALS, &o. 




Name of Material. 


Lbs. 


Pyrites, broken pieces . 


156 


,, dust or " smalls " 


146£ 


,, burnt 


95 


Salt 


43 


" Salt cake," or sulphate of soda ... 


73i 


Limestone " small pieces " 


87i 


Soda ash 


74-5 


Bleaching powder ... ... 


45/52 


Manganese ore... 


138 


Coke, lumps, hard burnt 


26/33 


Flints 


100 


Mechanical wood pulp, individual bales, 50 % water 


59f 


,, ,, 5 ? in store, packed close 


54/56 


Sulphite wood pulp, bale, 10 % water 


39 


,, ,, ,, in store 


36/37 


Aluminous cake 


66 


Sulphate of alumina, in small pieces, 17 % 




ground, 17 % 


64 


Magnesia ... 


70 


Brimstone ... 


92 


Coal, steam ... 


47/54 


,, slack ... •-. 


45/60 


,, anthracite 


56/58 


Sand for gravity niters 


83 


Lime Caustic ... 


62^/66 



197 



Comparison of Degrees Baume Specific Gravity and 
Degrees Twaddell @ 12-5° C. 




Rules: — Be — Degrees Baume ; Tw = Degrees Twaddell 
Sp. Gr. = Specific Gravity. 
144-3x100) 
144 . 3 _ B ^-=:Sp. Gr. When Water =1,000. 




Sp. Gr.— 1,000 

— f— ' = Tw. When Water = 1,000. 

5 ' 




Degrees 
Baume. 


Specific 

Gravity. 


Degrees 
Twaddell. 


Decrees 
Baumd. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Degrees 
Twaddell. 


1 


1-0069 


1-4 


37 


1-3447 


68-94 j 


2 ' 


1-0140 


2-8 


38 


1-3574 


71-48 1 


3 


1-0212 


4-2 


39 


1-3703 


74-06 j 


4 


1-0285 


5-7 


40 


1-3834 


76-68 


5 


1-0358 


7-16 


41 


1-3968 


79-36 j 


6 


1-0434 


8-68 


42 


14105 


82-10 j 


7 


1-0509 


10-18 


43 


1-4244 


84-88 


8 


1-0587 


11-74 


44 


1-4386 


87-72 | 


9 


1-0665 


13-30 


45 


1-4531 


90-62 ! 


10 


1-0745 


14-90 


46 


1-4678 


93-56 ! 


11 


1-0825 


16-50 


47 


1-4828 


96-56 


12 


1-0907 


18-01 


48 


1-4984 


99-68 


13 


1-0990 


19-80 


49 


1-5141 


102-82 


14 


1-1074 


21-48 


50 


1-5301 


106-02 


15 


1-1160 


23-20 


51 


1-5466 


109-32 


16 


1-1247 


24-94 


52 


1-5633 


112-66 


17 


1-1335 


26-70 


53 


1-5804 


116-08 


18 


1-1425 


28-50 


54 


1-5978 


119-56 


19 


1-1516 


30-32 


55 


1-6158 


123-1 


20 


1-1608 


32-16 


56 


1-6342 


126-8 


21 


1-1702 


34*04 


57 


1-6529 


130-6 


22 


1-1798 


35-90 


58 


1-6720 


134-4 


23 


1-1896 


37-92 


59 


1-6916 . 


138-3 


24 


1-1994 


39-88 


60 


1-7116 


142-3 


25 


1-2095 


41-90 - 


61 


1-7322 


146-4 


26 


1-2198 


43-96 


62 


1-7532 


150-6 1 


27 


1-2301 


46-00 


63 


1-7748 


154-9 i 


28 


1-2407 


48-01 ! 


64 


1-7960 


159-2 


29 


1-2515 


50-03 


65 


1-8195 


163-9 


30 


1-2624 


5248 


66 


1-8428 


168-6 


31 


1-2736 


54-72 


67 


1-859 


171-8 


32 


1-2849 


56-98 


68 


1-864 


172-8 


33 


1-2965 


59-30 


69 


1-885 


177-0 


34 


1-3082 


61-64 


70 


1-909 


181-8 


35 


1-3202 


64-04 


71 


1-935 


187-0 


36 


1-3324 


66-48 


72 


1-960 


192-0 



Note. — The above is for Baume's hydrometer, generally used on the 
Continent of Europe. Another scale is in use in America, to which the 
above table is not applicable. 



198 
CHA PTER VIII. 

PAPER MILL MACHINERY. 

Rag Cutter, consisting of strong cast-iron wheel, with three 
cast steel knives revolving against a cast steel dead knife; 
fluted feed rollers, cast-iron stand, shaft, fast and loose 
pulleys complete, weighs about 25 cwts. ; revolves 1G0 per 
minute, making 480 cwts, and requires from 2 to 4 h.p., in 
accordance with material operated upon. 

NuttaWs Guillotine Rag Cutter. — Large size: Cuts 30 cwts. 
per hour, and is driven by a pair of fast and loose pulleys 
3 feet 10£ inches in diameter X 5|- inches wide; 120 revolu- 
tions per minute ; weighs 5 tons, and requires 4 h.p. Small 
size : Cuts 20 ewts. per hour, driven by a pair of fast and loose 
pulleys 3 feet diameter x 4| inches wide ; 100 revolutions 
per minute, weighs 3 tons, and requires 3 h.p. 

Rag Duster. — Drum sieve, 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet long, 
covered with iron wire gauze ^-inch mesh, 2 feet 9 inches 
diameter at narrow end and 3 feet 6 inches diameter at 
wide end. Wooden revolving shaft inside, with pegs, 34 — 40 
revolutions per minute. Requires 1 h.p. and dusts 3 cwts. per 
hour. Sieve enclosed in wooden box. Larger size 4 feet 
diameter x 14 feet long on slight incline, drum covered with 
5-inch mesh wire gauze, 15 revolutions per minute. 

Grass Duster. — Conical drum placed horizontally, with 
several rows of spikes passing through spaces of similar rows 
in the conical cover. Bottom of conical casing is of open 
wirework, through which dust is sucked by a fan. Grass fed 
in through hopper at small end of cone. Revolutions of 
drum 260 per minute. 

Sphe?'ical Boilers for Rag, Straw, Waste Papers, Sfc. — 
Shells of wrought-iron or mild steel plates : two manhole covers, 
taps, safety-valve, pressure gauge, steam and water connec- 
tions, blow-off cock. Cast-iron stands, with worm gearing 
and worm wheel attached to trunnion of boiler, shaft fast and 
loose pulleys. Makes 12 revolutions per hour or ith of a 
revolution per minute. 

Rags per 
Charge. 
5 cwts. 

8j 5! 

14 „ 

20 ,, 
30 „ 
40 „ 
53£ „ 
70 „ 
90 „ 
113 „ 

Esparto Boilers. — Upright cylinders of wrought iron or 
mild steel, 9 feet diameter by 9 feet high ; butt joints 



Diameter 


Capacity in 


m Feet. 


Cubic Feet. 


5 


65 


6 


113 


7 


180 


8 


268 


9 


381 


10 


523 


11 


697 


12 


905 


13 


1149 


14 


1436 



Straw per 
Charge. 


4£ 


CWiS. 


7} 

11* 

16 


5> 

JJ 

5 5 


22 
29 


55 


37J 

48 


s 5 


60 





199 

double riveted, capable of withstanding a pressure of 100 lbs. 
per square inch, and provided with side door and door in 
dome for filling, vomiting arrangement, run-off cock, safety 
valve, blow-off valve, pressure gauge, &c. Capacity about 
572 cubic feet, will take a charge of 50 cwts. Esparto. 

Soda Wood Pulp Digesters. — Usually upright cylinders of 
mild steel plates, cone shaped at top and bottom ; provided 
with manhole and cover on top cone, run-off valve, blow-off 
valve at bottom, pressure gauge. .No vomiting pipe, but 
charge heated direct with injected steam. Shell of digester 
double riveted with butt joints, and capable of withstanding 
a working pressure of 140 lbs. per square inch above 
atmosphere. From 60 to 100 cubic feet of boiler space are 
required per ton of air-dry soda pulp produced per week, 
according to quality. 

Sulphite Pulp Digesters. — Upright cylinders of mild steel 
plate of unusual thickness, butt joints with the inside rivet- 
heads countersunk, cone or egg-shaped top and bottom. Top 
and bottom neck pieces of cast steel, man-lid with bronze 
blow-off valve, bronze run-off valve to bottom ; steam wheel 
and check valves ; thermometer tube and testing cock at side, 
pressure gauge. The following are the sizes of upright 
digester shells, and then approximate capacity per charge 
expressed in tons of air-dry pulp : — 

10 feet diameter x 30 feet high = 3 tons per charge. 



14 


?j 


,, 


X 35 


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5 J J 


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>> 


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,, , 


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>> 


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j> 


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> ' » 


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?) 


!? 


X 45 


5J 


J5 


= 10 


>5 5 


15 


y> 


5 > 


X 42 


59 


JJ 


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J5 J 


15 




J» 


X 45 


»' 


S> 


= 15 


» J 5 



Note. — After deducting the thickness of cement and tile 
lining with which these digesters are usually lined, the net 
boiler space required per ton of pulp per charge is about 480 
cubic feet. 

The boiler space required per ton of pulp made per week 
depends upon the system of cooking employed. In the 
Mitcherlich slow method of cooking there are about 280 
cubic feet of space required per ton of air-dry pulp made per 
week, whilst 50 to 55 cubic feet will suffice for the quickest 
method of boiling. 

Kollergang. — Cast-iron pan, 10 feet diameter x 18 inches 
deep, with granite bedstone 6 feet diameter x about 12 inches 
thick. Two granite runners 6 feet diameter, one 18 inches 
wide on face and one 21 inches wide on face. Under driven 
with bevel gear 90 and 12 cogs, 2 inches pitch, 5 inches wide. 
Cast-iron stands, shaft, fast and loose pulleys, &c. Speed of 
stones, 14 revolutions per minute. Speed of shaft = 105 



200 

revolutions per minute Size of pulley = 42 inches diameter 
X 7£ inches on face. Weight about 16 tons. 14 to 15 h.p. with 
full load. 

Pochers. — Cast-iron trough in parts, with mid-feather or 
wall 26 feet long x 14 feet 6 inches wide x 3 feet deep ; 
area = 321 square feet. Total cubic capacity about 900 
cubic feet. Wooden paddles in cast-iron arms fixed on 
wrought-iron shaft. Shaft revolves 33 per minute. Will 
hold 15 to 20 cwts. air-dry pulp. 4 h.p. Weight about 6^ 
tons. Drum washer 5 feet x 4 feet 6 inches diameter; 
makes 6 to 7 revolutions per minute. 

Breakers. — (Capacity, 10 cwts.) Cast-iron trough in parts, 
and joints caulked with iron borings 19 feet long x 9 feet 

3 inches wide (equal to 157 square feet area) ; 2 feet 6 inches 
deep at shallow end and 2 feet 11 inches deep at deep end; 
usual back fall and mid-wall. Recess for washing water 

4 feet 9 inches long x 1\ inches wide, 5 inches deep, and 
covered with brass plate 4,000 holes -^ inch diameter ; 4-inch 
supply pipe (water). Cast-iron roll 4 feet 6 inches diameter 
X 4 f est 6 inches wide ; 84 bars in 21 clumps, bars of Bessemer 
steel If inches projection, 4 feet 6 inches long x 6 inches 
wide x T 7 s ths thick, and bevelled \\ inches. Pulley on roll 
shaft 5 feet diameter x 12 inches on face. 110 revolutions 
per minute. Bed-plate. 22 knives, 4 feet 6 inches x 6 inches 
x ^ inch; 1 -inch bevel. 

Two drum washers, 3 feet 3 inches diameter x 3 feet 
9 inches wide, covered with honeycombed sheet brass and wire 
gauze; 12 revolutions per minute. Weight complete, 16 tons. 

Beating Engines (Capacity, 5 cwts). — Ordinary type of 
Hollander. Cast-iron trough in one piece, 16 ft. long x 8 ft. 
broad (equal to 114 sq. ft. area), 2 ft. 4 in. deep at shallow or front 
end and 2 ft. 7£ in. at deep or back end. Recess in bottom at 
front of roll for inlet washing water 4 ft. 3 in. long, covered 
with perforated brass plate, 2,500 holes, -Jg- in. diameter. 
Bottom of engine dished. Cast-iron roll, 4 ft. diameter x 
4 ft. wide ; weight, 3 to 4 tons. 100 bars in 25 clumps of four 
each. Bars, 4 ft. long x 5| in. broad x § in. thick, bevelled 
\\ in. Leading bar in each clump of gun-metal, others of cast 
steel. 150 revolutions per minute. Pulley, in roll shaft, 
4 ft. diameter x 12^ in. on face. Bed-plate of cast steel, 24 
bars 4 ft. long x 5§ in. broad T \ in. thick. 23 zinc dividers, 
T ^ in. thick, 4 ft. long x 9 in. broad, placed in cast-iron box. 
Drum washer, 3 ft. long x 3 ft. diameter, covered with copper 
honeycombed backing plates and fine wire gauze, 60 meshes to 
the lineal inch. 1 2 revolutions per minute. Nominal capacity 
of engine, 525, 540, and 620 lbs. paper. Total weight, 11 tons. 

The following are approximate dimensions of beating 
engines of various capacities: — 



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203 

Heed's Beating Engine. — Cast-iron trough in pieces 20 feet 
long x 12 feet wide over all, with roll elevated above level 
of stuff. Bronze propeller, in pipe 24 inches diameter, at end 
to elevate stuff to bed-plate ; speed of propeller, 135 to 140 
revolutions per minute. Roll 3 feet diameter x 4 feet wide. 
150 bars of Bessemer steel, set equidistant from one another, 
each bar 6 inches wide x t 3 q- in. thick, no bevel, but cut square 
across; pitch f inch, projection f inch. Speed of roll, 230 
revolutions per minute. Pulley on roll shaft 3 feet 6 inches 
diameter x 8 inches broad. 

Bed-plate 30 bars, each 5| inches broad x i in. thick except 
outside one, which is f in. or \ inch ; i in. zinc dividers. 

Capacity, 670 lbs. dry paper. Weight complete = 10£ tons. 

The Taylor Patent Beating and Refining Engines are made 
in sizes of from 400 lbs. capacity to 1,200 lbs. capacity of dry 
paper with the horizontal trough, and up to 2,000 lbs. or more 
capacity with vertical tower trough. The rolls are 3 feet, 
4 feet, and 5 feet wide on face respectively. The circulation 
of the pulp in the engine is accomplished by means of Masson 
Scott & Co.'s Patent Stuff Circulator, which also delivers the 
pulp into the stuff chests, and empties the engine, and to a 
level above the level of the beating engines if necessary. 

The floor space required for the horizontal beating engines 
is as follows : — 

ft. 

For 400 lbs. capacity engine 14 

,, 600 to 700 lbs. engine 14 

,, 900 lbs. capacity engine 15 

,, 1,200 lbs. ,, " ,, 19 

The space required for the vertical tower beating engine, 
to carry about 1,500 lbs. to 2,000 lbs. of dry paper, is 
9 feet 8 inches x 9 feet 8 inches. 



in. 


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206 

Roger's Wandel Strainer. — Revolving drum, 85 inches long 
X 28 inches in diameter, making 2 to 2| revolutions per 
minute. Flow of stuff from inside to outside self -cleaning. 
Speed of cam shaft 180 revolutions per minute ; number of 
knocks per minute, 900. Size of pulley on cam shaft 
12 inches diameter x 4 inches on face. Cast-iron stands 
and trough. Total weight, 25 cwt. 

Reinicke and Jasper's Revolving Strainer. — Eevolving drum, 
94£ inches long x 24 inches diameter, in cast-iron trough, 
flow of stuff from outside to inside self -cleaning. Drum 
makes about one revolution per minute, and has no knock. 
Shaft producing suction, revolutions 420 per minute, pulley 
on same =8^ inches diameter x 4 J inches on face. Cast- 
iron stand complete weighs 80 cwts. 

White's Oscillating Strainer. — Flat straining surface, 7 feet 
X 2 feet = 14 square feet area, in cast-iron oscillating frame 
7 feet 2 inches x 2 feet 10 inches inside measurement, 
with automatic valves at sides for coarse stuff. Self- 
cleaning, oscillations per minute = 10. Rubber diaphragm 
dilates = 570 per minute. Speed of shaft, 570 revolutions 
per minute, pulley on shaft 10J inches diameter X 4£ 
inches on face. Cast-iron stands and bed-plate ; total 
weight 50 cwts. "With 4|- cwt. (Watson's) strainer will 
pass 700 to 800 lbs. esparto stuff per hour. 

Paper machine speeds, fyc. 









Revs, per min. 


Steam engines 







90 to 100 


Stuff chest agitators 








8 to 10 


No. of rams. 


Dia. 


Stroke. 




Back-water pumps 2 


8 in. 


18 in. 


46 


Stuff pump 1 


6 „ 


12 „ 


11 


Vacuum 3 


6 „ 


10 „ 


60 


Hogs in breast box 






36 


Pulp ' ' Save all " Wandles 







7 


Felt washer rolls 








33 


Ventilators (Blackman's) ... 







900 


Damping brush 







200/300 



Roll. — Calender, 80 inches wide, consisting of strong cast- 
iron upright frames, with compound levers and weights, 
eight rolls — four of paper, cotton, or asbestos, and four of hard 
chilled iron — reeling off and on brackets, spreading roll, 
platform with stair and handrails, fast and loose pulleys, and 
gear arrangement for two speeds ; weighs complete from 19 
to 20 tons. Feeding speed, 14 feet per minute. Running 
speed, 200 to 240 feet per minute. Requires 35 to 40 horse 
power. 



207 

Revolving Cutters. — Average strokes on fly knife, 30 ; 
usually 3-step or cone pulley is fixed to cutters, to rise or fall 
10 cuts per minute, which will give 20, 30, and 40 cuts per 
minute. Kequires 1£ to 3 horse power. 



Papier Zeitung. 

POWER REQUIRED TO DRIVE A FOURDRINIER 
PAPER MACHINE. 

The following figures were obtained by Messrs. Korn & Bock 
in their paper mill at Sacra w. 

Particulars of Machine, &c. — Wire 66 in. wide (1670 
m.m.). Speed 217 ft. per min. (66-2 metres). Paper, reeled 
news, about 22 lbs. double crown. Steam engine, cyl. ll^f in. 
diam. by 23f in. stroke, 100 revols. per min. Machinery driven 
by this engine was as follows: — 

a— Two stuff chest agitaters. 

b— One Kron's backwater screw pump ; speed 412 revols. per min. ; 

height of lift, 4 ft. 9 in. 
c — One cir. revolving knotter (Eeinecke & Jasper). Cut No. 4, 

length 8 feet (2,450 mm.), 23f in. dia. ; 350 revols. per min. 
d— Pulp stirrer in breast box (" hog "). Box 7 ft. 9 x 38 in. x 28|in.; 

" hog" revolved 36 times per min. 
e — One wire cloth with 2 suction boxes. 
/—Friction shake apparatus. Disc on working shaft 98 revols. per 

min., the wet end of machine 170 vibrations per min. to or fro. 
g— First press rolls, bottom covered with rubber, 9f in. dia., lever press 

on journals, 
ft— Second press rolls. Two chilled iron lOJin. dia., 66f in. on face 

Hand screw press at journal ends. 
j— Four drying cylinders 38| in. dia. by 66 in. on face, and one felt 

drying cylinder 28| in. by 66 in. on face. 
k— Three drying cylinders as above, and one felt drying cylinder 

27£ in. dia. 
I — One pair intermediate smoothing rolls, similar to 2nd press. 
m— One large drying cylinder, 59 in. dia. by 66 in. on face, with one 

felt drying cylinder 23| in. dia. 
n — One pair smoothing rolls as at " I" similar to 2nd press, 
o — One large drying cylinder, 59 in. dia. by 66 in. on face. 
p— One stack of calenders, 6 rolls, bottom roll 16£ in. dia. by 66 in. on 

face, the others 8£ in. dia. by 66 in. on face. 
q — One of Kron's dampers. 
r— One slitter and counter. 
s — Friction reeler for 4 reels. 
t— Pulp save-all wire cloth drum, 25 in. dia. by 24 in. wide ; 7 revols. 

per min. 
w— Felt washer rolls, 12 in. dia. ; 39 in. wide ; 33 revols. per min. 
v— One of Schiele's rotating ventilators, 25£ in. dia. ; 900 revols. 

per min. 
x — Hot-water feed pump for steam boiler. Ram, 2| in. dia. ; 4 in. 

stroke ; 80 revols. per min. Press, in boiler, 90 lbs. per sq. in. 



Consumption of Power. 

i.h.p. 

By the Felt-washer was estimated to be 0*25 

Palp save-all „ ,, ... ... ... 0*20 

Pulp stirrer or " hog " „ 0*10 

Feed pump was calculated ,, 0*65 

Ventilator taken from reliable sources ... ... 0*60 

Smoothing rolls, calculated from investigations 0*90 

The work of each large drying cylinder was assumed to be 
equal to 2 small ones, and the necessary power for the latter 
calculated from the diagrams. 

TABLE A. — When the Machine is Running Empty. 

I.H.P. 

1. The steam engine alone at 100 revols. per min. ... 5-02 

2. The f oregoing,together with the whole line of shafting 12 73 

3. Do. do. with 1 felt washer, 1 ventilator, 1 "hog,"^ tj.oq 

2 large drying cylinders, and 2 smoothing rolls) 

4. Do. do. with 1 pulp chest full of pulp 18*76 

5. Do. do. do. 1 knotter with water 19-78 

6. Do. do. do. the shake motion 20*32 

7. Do. do. do. 1st press rolls and lever pressure on 21*70 

8. Do. do. do. 2nd do. do. screw do. 23*26 

9. Do. do. do. 7 drying cylinders and 2 felt driers 28*19 

10. Do. do. do. calenders (6 rolls) 30*77 

11. Do. do. do. wire cloth, without pulp or suction) o-i.q fi 

on suction boxes j 

TABLE B.— When Pulp was Running on Machine. 

I.H.P 

1. When all is going excepting the wire cloth, 1st and) 09.41 

2nd press rolls and reeler f 

2. „ the wire cloth, where suction boxes were added 34*69 

3. „ 1st and 2nd press rolls were added 36*64 

4. „ drying cylinders ,, 37-06 

5. „ calenders ,, 37*25 

6. „ cutter, damper, and reeler ,, 38*25 

The sum of the differences between 6 and 7, 7 and 8, and 
10 and 11 in Table A gives 4*13 i.h.p. as the quantity required 
to drive those parts of the machine which are not in motion in 
No. 1, Table B, and, deducting this from the total i.h.p of A, 
we have 31*94— 4*13 = 27*81. If then we deduct this from B, 
thus: 32*41— 27*81 = 4*58 i.h.p., we obtain the amount of power 
required to drive the boiler feed pump (calculated to consume 
0*65 h.p.) ; one pulp save-all (estimated to require 0*20 h.p.) ; 
the knotter and Kron's screw pump. If tbe knotter requires 



:o9 



0-50 h.p. more when it works paper pulp than when passing 
water as already obtained (giving a total of 152 h.p.), there 
remains a difference of 2*23, which is placed against the Kron 
pump, thus: 4*58— (0*65+0-2+l-5) = 2-23. 

The wire cloth, No. 11 on Table A (difference between 10 
and 11) absorbs 1-19 i.h.p., whilst in No. 2, Table B, the total 
power required to overcome friction, &c, due to the application 
of the suction, and also to drive the wire when empty is 
plainly seen. The press rolls give in B the required power of 
2 i.h.p. when the machine was working pulp, whilst when 
running empty the power required was equal to 2-80 i.h.p. 
Apparently the difference in these figures is due to the press 
rolls in 8 A being tightly screwed down while running empty, 
and less pressure being put on when making paper. When 
the paper web passed over the drying cylinders the power 
required by them was - 42 i.h.p more than when the machine 
ran empty. The calenders likewise indicated a similar 
difference of 0*19 i.h.p. The ripper, damping and friction 
reeling apparatus, required altogether 1*10 i.h.p., of which 0*9 
should be debited to the reeling apparatus. 

Apportioning the quantities of power required by the 
several parts of the machine the following figures are 
obtained, viz. : — 

I.H.P. 

Steam engine with wheels 5.02 



Shafting alone 

Stuff chests 

Kron's pump 

Knotter 

Wire cloth and suction boxes 
One pulp stirrer, " hog" ... 

Shake 

Drying cylinders 

Smoothing rolls 

Calenders 

Ripper, damper, and reeler 

Pulp " save-all " 

Felt washer ... 

Ventilator 

Force pump for boilers 



7.71 
1.38 
2-23 
1-52 
2-28 
0-10 
0-54 
8-15 
245 
2-77 
1-10 
0-20 
0-25 
0-60 
0-65 



38-40 

Note. — The exhaust steam from the engine was not used for 
drying the paper. 



14 



210 



APPENDIX. 

Yield of unbleached Cellulose from Spruce by " Sulphite 
Process. 

Manufacturing practice (Beveridge). 



One ton of air-dry unbleached wood pulp required. 


Pinus 
Picea. 


Cubic feet of piled logs ' ... 

,, fathoms of piled pulp wood 

Cords of piled pulp wood 

Loads (one load = 50 cubic feet solid wood) ... 


227 
1-05 
1-77 
3-49 


One cubic fathom of imported piled pulp wood logs 
will yield of unbleached air-dry pulp. 


2,130 lbs. 



Note. — These figures are from imported wood, freed from 
outer bark, and of usual sizes. 



AMERICAN 



Tissue Paper Trade Customs. 

Standard Basis.— White tissue, 20 x 30—480 sheets, 
7 pounds ; 24 x 36 — 480 sheets, 10 pounds. Manila tissue, 
24 x 36 — 480 sheets, 10 pounds. For sizes smaller than 
20 x 30, if required, 5 cents additional to base price. 

Rolls, Cores, Sheet Paper, &c. — Paper sold in Jumbo 
rolls by the pound, 12 pound paper, three-quarters of a cent 
per pound ; less than 10 pound, 14 to 15 pound paper, one- 
quarter of a cent less than 12 pound ; 16 to 18 pound paper, 
one-quarter of a cent less than 14 to 15 pound. When shipped 
in rolls or wound on wooden or iron cores, paper to be removed 
therefrom by purchaser, and cores returned to the manu- 
facturers at invoiced price. 



211 



Miscellaneous Conditions, Minimum Orders, &o. — All 
paper heavier than 10 pounds to the ream, 24 x 36 — 480 
sheets, to be sold by the pound, the weight to include wrappers 
and twine. All sizes of paper sold by ream, ordered a fraction of 
an inch smaller than regular sizes, to be billed as regular sizes. 
The limit in weight shall be 17 pounds to the ream, 24 x 36 
— 480 sheets ; tissue paper in excess of this weight to come 
under the classification of light weight manila. 

Trimming, Finishing, Case Linings, Ream Wrapping, 
&C — Ten cents per cwt. extra for string tying. Five cents 
per cwt. extra for irregular counts. For finishing in large 
sheets for toilet paper, 12^- cents per cwt. extra will be charged. 
Ream wrapping, 20 cents per cwt. 

Over-runs and Under-runs. — On orders for special sizes 
or colours, 10 per cent, above or below the quantity ordered 
to be considered a good delivery and accepted by purchaser. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Abolish the Bad Debt Ledger. 

Transfer overdue Debit Balances standing in your Books to 

"WYS MULLER & CO. 
COLLECTING ACCOUNT" 

and send them to us for collection. 

f TIME, 
SAVE YOUR TROUBLE and 

MONEY. 



WYS MULLER & CO., 

Bankers: I9a, Coleman Street, London, E.C. 

London County & Westminster Bank, Established 1862. 

rore btreet, h.C. 



Contingent Liability, 
Craft & Conveyances 
Floating Policies. 
Fire. 

Marine. . 
Employers' Liability 
Bad Debts. . 



Insurance. 



PAUL GOMPERTZ <3 CO., 

Insurance Brokers, 

3, NEWMAN'S COURT, CORNHILL, E.C, and 

i9a, COLEMAN STREET, E.C 



INDEX. 



Absolute or Tensile Strength of Papers 


167 


Account Book Papers, Sizes of . 


19 

147 

204 


AcioiinGtry *•< ... ... ... ... ... 

Acme Beaters, Particulars of 


Adjective or Acid Dyes 


130 


Advertisers (List of ) 


lvii 


Air required for Burning Sulphur 


93 


Air, Composition of 


94 


Alkalimetry 


144 


Alumina, Sulphate of 


... 131, 153, 188, 189 


,, Acetate of 


132 


,, Solutions of Pure Sulphate of 


188, 189 


Alumino-ferric 


153, 189 


,, Cake, Examination of, &c. 


153 


Alum (Aluminous Cake), Examination of, &c. ... 


153,155 


Alums, Composition and Uses of 


131 


American Trade Customs 


39 


Analyses, General Paper-mill 


138 


Analyst's Certificate — Moisture in Wood Pulp . . . 


177 


Annatto 


134 


Asbestine 


181 


Ash in Papers, Determination of the 


169 


Atomic Weights of Chemical Elements, Table of 


138 



Bamboo, Properties of Fibre from , ... 82 

,, Chemical Treatment of 82 

Barium Chloride, Sp. gr. of Saturated Solution of 191 

Barytes 181 

" Bases " in Bisulphite Liquors, Estimation of 148 

Basic Dyes 130 

Baum6, Comparison of Degrees Twaddell and Sp. gr. with 197 

Beating Engines, Capacity and Dimensions of 201,202,204 

Bisulphites, Preparation of 95 

,, of Lime 95 

,, of Magnesia 100 

of Soda 101 

,, of Lime Liquors, Composition of 97,99 

,, of Liquors, Analyses of 148 

BlanoFixe 181 

Bleaching (Hot), Formula for Calculating Steam required for ... 63 

,, Powder, Valuation of 151 

,, „ Composition of 187 

„ ,, Solutions, Available Chlorine in 187 

Blotting Paper, Sizes of 22 



PAGE 

Blue, Ultramarine 136, 152 

„ Prussian 136 

,, Pigments 136 

Boards, Sizes of 22 

Boilers, Capacity of Spherical .., 19S 

Boiling Wood, Bisulphite Process ... ... 101 

Brazil or Yellow Wood 134 

Breaking Length of Papers 167 

Breaking- Engine, Capacity and Dimensions of 200 

Bristol Boards, Sizes of 22 

British Thermal Unit, Definition of 66 

British Trade Customs 37 

Brown Papers, Sizes of 21,22 

,, Pigments 137 



Calcium Chloride, Sp. gr. of Saturated Solution of 191 

Calenders, Particulars of Roll 206 

Calorimeter, Fisoher's 165 

Capacity of Frank's Tub System 99 

Carbonate of Soda, Sp. gr. of Saturated Solution of 184 

Cardboards, Sizes of 22 

Cartridge Papers, Sizes of 21 

Catechu 135 

Caustic Soda from Recovered Ash. preparation .of 119 

„ ,, Sp. gr. and Composition of Solutions of 185 

„ ,, Valuation of 145 

,, ,, Composition of 183 

Causticising Soda, Lunge's experiments on 121 

Cellulose, Preparation of Wood, by Soda process 87 

,, ,, ,, Sulphate process 90 

,, ,, ,, Bisulphite process 92 

Centigrade with Fahrenheit and Reaumur, Comparison of 53, 54 

Certificate for Wood-pulp Test 177 

Chapman's Evaporator , .. 109 

Chart Papers, Sizes of 20 

Chemical Elements, Table of 138 

Chimney Gases, Examination of .. 165 

China Clay as a loading 178 

China Clays, Examination of 161 

Chloride of Sodium, Estimation of, in Alkaline Liquid ... . 146 

Chrome, Yellow 136 

Clarke's Soap Test 164 

Classification of Papers in Germany 25 

Cleaning Pulpwood . ... 85 

Coal, Examination of 164 

Cochineal 134 

Coloured Papers 128 

Combination of Colours 130 

Combustion of Sulphur in Air , 93 

Comparison of Thermometric Scales 53 

Composition of Recovered Soda 114 

,, of Straws and of Ashes from Straws 79 

,, (percentage) of Chemical Compounds 139 

Copper Mordants 132 

Copying Papers, Sizes of 20 

Cost Table— Id. to 5d. per lb., less Discounts 32 



Cotton Fibre, Chemical Properties of 

,, ,, Treatment of 

Cutters, Revolving: 



PAGE 

128 
69 

207 



Digesting Esparto, &c, Steam required for 
Digesters, Mitscherlich's, Sizes of 

„ Soda Wood-pulp 

,, Sulphite Wood-pulp, Capacity of 

Dolomite 

Drawing Papers, Sizes of 

Drying Pulp or Paper, Steam required for 

Duster, Particulars of Rag 

,, ,, Grass 

Dyeing, Paper-pulp 

Dyes, Basic and Acid 



63 
T01 
199 
199 
96 
19 
67 
198 
198 
130 
130 



Elements, Table of Chemical 

Enderlein's System of Soda Recovery 

Equivalent Weights— French Sizes 

,, ,, of Printing Papers 

,, ,, of Wrapping ,, 

,, ,, of Writing: ,, 

Esparto, Steam required for Digesting 

, , Particulars of Boiling in Caustic Lyes . . . 

,, Yield of Pulp from 

,, Boilers, Capacity of 

Evaporator (Yaryan) Tests 



138 

107 

41 

27 



63 
76 

... 73, 76 
76 

109, 113 



F 

Fahrenheit with Centigrade and Reaumur, Comparison of 

Fibres, Properties of 

Fischer's Calorimeter 

Flues, Determination of Temperature of 

Formulae — Heating Liquids with Steam 

Frank's Apparatus 

French Papers, Sizes of 



53 
128 
165 
165 

61 



German Classification and Sizes of Papers 
Glazed Pressing Boards, Sizes of 

Grocers' Papers, Sizes of 

Ground Wood, Manufacture of 

Gypsum 



25 

23 

21 

123 

179 



Hardness of Water, Determination of 
Heating with Steam 



Heat, Definition of British Unit of 

,, ,, Specific 

,, ,, Latent 

Heats, Table of Specific 

Hollanders, Capacity and Dimensions of 

Hot-bleaching, Formula for Calculating Steam required for 
Hydrochloric Acid, Sp. gr. of 



56 
56 
56 
56 

200 
63 

192 



Iron Mordants . . 
,, Nitrate of ... 



... 132 
132, 136 



Jute Cellulose, Properties of. 
„ Treatment of 



129 
71 



Kollergangs, Dimensions, &c., of 



199 



Latent Heat, Definition of 

Lead Salts as Mordants 

Lime, Composition of Bisulphite of... 

,, Milk of, Sp.gr 

Linen Cellulose, Properties of 

,, Rags, Treatment of 

Liquids, Heating with Steam 

Loading Materials 

Loan Papers, Sizes of 

Logwood 

Loss of Alkali in Soda Recovery ... 
,, Wood in Making Chips for Pulp 

Losses in Treatment of Rags 

,, ,, Jute... 



.. 133 

97 

122 

.. 129 

.. 69, 70 

61 
.. 178 

19 
.. 135 
.. 119 
.. 85, 86 
.. 70, 71 

72 



M 



Magnesia, Bisulphite of 100 

Manganese, Brown 137 

Marshall's Refiners, Particulars of 205 

Mechanical Wood-pulp 123 

Wood, Chemical Tests for 174 

Mensuration of Surfaces and Capacities 3 

Metrical Equivalents of Weights and Measures 1 

Micro-chemical Reactions of Fibres 170,171 

Milk of Lime, Sp. gr. of 122 

Millboards, Sizes of 24 

Mineral Pigments 135 

Mitscherlich's Towers and Digesters 96,101 

,, System of Boiling Wood. Bisulphite process 102 

Molecular Weights of Compounds 139 

Mordants 131 

Megass (Crushed Sugar Cane), Composition and Treatment of ... 83 



XX111 
N 



Nuttall's Rag-cutter 



198 



Ochres 



... 136 



Papers, Sizes of 


19 


„ ,, in France and Belgium .. 


41 


,, ,, in Germany ... 


25 


,, Equivalent Weights per Ream 27 


28, 29, 30, 31 


,, Cost per Ton at Id. to 5d. per lb., less Discounts 


.. 32, 33 


Paper Testing 


167 


,, Resistance of, to Folding and Crumpling 


... 169 


,, Thickness, Determination of 


... 169 


,, Microscopical Investigation of 


... 170 


,, Animal Size in 


... 173 


,, Rosin in 


... 174 


„ Starch in 


... 174 


,, Free Acid in 


... 174 


„ Mechanical Wood in 


... 174 


,, Mill Machinery 


... 198 


,, Machine Speeds 


... 206 


Parchment (Writing), Sizes of 


23 


Paste Blue 


... 136 


Pearl Hardening .. 


179 


Pearson and Bertram's Refiner 


... 205 


Pigments, Mineral 


... 135 


Plate Paper, Sizes of 


20 


Pochers, Dimension and Capacity of 


... 200 


Portfolios, Sizes of 


23 


Power required to drive Paper Machine 


... 207 


Printing Paper, Sizes of 


20 


,, Papers, Equivalent Weights 


27 


Properties of Saturated Steam, Table of 


57 


„ ,, Fibres 


128, 171 


Prussian Blue ... 


... 136 


Pulp (or Paper), Formula for Calculating Steam required for 


Drying 67 


„ Wood 


84 


,, from Wood by Soda Process, Yield of 


...89,90 


,, ,, Sulphate Process, ,, 


91 


,, ,, Bisulphite Process, ,, 


Appendix 


,, Preparation of Wood-chips 


85 


Pump Speeds ' 


06 


Pyrites, Sulphurous Acid from 


94 



Quercitron 



134 



Rags, Treatment of 

Rag Boilers, Capacity of Spherical .. 
„ Cutter 



198 
198 



Raw Fibrous Stock, Properties, &c, of 

Reaumur with Fahrenheit and Centigrade, Comparison 

Reclaiming SO2 from Digesters 

Recovered Ash, Analysis of 

Red, Venetian ... 

. ,, Pigments 

,, Wood 

Reed Beater, Particulars of 

Refiners, Particulars of 

Reinicke and Jasper's Revolving Strainer 

Rogers' Wandel-Strainer 

Rosin, Examination of 

,, -Size, Analysis of .. 



53 
... 103 
114, 145 
... 136 
... 136 
... 134 
... 203 
... 205 



162 
160 



Salt Cake or Crude Sulphate of Soda, Analysis of 

Satin White 

Silicate of Soda in Alkaline Liquors, Determination ... 

Size, Analysis of Rosin 

Sizes of Paper — in England 

„ „ in France and Belgium 

,, ,, in Germany 

Sizing, Determination of the Strength of... 

Small Hands, Sizes of 

Soda Contents in Waste Lyes from Wood Palp Boiling 

Soda — Recovery from Spent Lyes 

,, Smelt;, Analysis of 

,, Lyes in Sulphate process, Composition of 114,115, 

,, Bisulphite of 

,, Ash, Valuation of 

,, Liquors from Recovered Ash, Analysis of 

,, Process— Wood Pulp 

Sodium Chloride, Sp. gr. of Saturated Solution of 

Solution of the Aniline Dyes in Water 

Specific Gravity, Baum£, and Twaddell — Comparison of Degrees 

,, ,, of Solutions of Sodium Carbonate 

,, ,, ,, Pure Caustic Soda 

,, „ ,, Cream Caustic Soda 

, , , , , , White 60 per cent. Caustic Soda 

„ 70 

Specific Heat, Definition of 

,, Heats of Solids, Liquids, and Gases, Table of 

Standard Arsenic Solution, Preparation of 

,, Silver Solution, ,, 

,, Acid, Preparation of 

,, Caustic Soda Solution 

,, Iodine Solution 

Starch and Iodide Solution 

,, ,, Papers 

,, Examination of 

Steam, Table of Properties of Saturated 

,, required for Drying Paper and Pulp 

,, for Hot Bleaching, Formula for Calculating 

,, for Digesting Esparto, Wood, &c. 6 

Strainers, Particulars of 

Straw-boards, Sizes of 

Straws, Composition of Dutch 



.. 157 
... 182 
... 147 
... 150 

19 
... 41, 42 

25 
.. 174 

22 
... 118 
... 106 
... 158 
116, 117 
... 101 
... 145 
145, 150 

87 
... 191 
... 133 
... 197 
... 184 
... 185 
... 186 
.. 186 
.. 186 

56 

56 
.. 151 
... 146 
... 144 
... 147 
.. 148 
.. 151 
... 151 
... 161 

57 
... 67, 68 

63 
3, 64, 65 
... 206 
... 24 

81 



Straw, Steam required for Digesting 64 

,, Particulars of Boiling in Caustic Lyes 78 

„ Yield of Cellulose from 78,80 

,, Composition of , Ashes from .. 79 

,, Boilers, Capacity of Spherical 198 

Substantive or Basic Lyes 130 

Sugar Papers, Sizes of 21 

Sulphate of Soda, Sp. gr. of Saturated Solution of 191 

,, Alumina, Examination of, &c. 153 

„ Sp. gr. of Solutions of 188,189 

„ Process, Wood-pulp 90 

,, Soda, Estimation in Alkaline Liquors 146 

,, of Lime as a Loading 179 

Sulphide of Soda, Estimation in Alkaline Liquors 159 

Sulphite Process, Wood-pulp 92 

,, Pulp, Mitscherlich's System 101 

Sulphur, Air required for Burning 94 

,, Heat of Combustion of 93 

,, Dioxide in Kiln Gases, Estimation of 149 

Sulphuric Acid, Sp. gr. of 193 

Sulphurous Acid, Solutions of 190 

,, ,, from Sulphur and Pyrites 93 

Surfaces and Capacities, Measuration of ... " 3 

Swedish Practice, Soda Wood-pulp (Hennefeld) .• 88 

T 

Table of Wages 4 

,, showing Weight per Ream from Weight of Sheet in Grains ... 34 

,, of Specific Heats ... 56 

Talc 181 

Tannin Mordants 132 

Temperatures— Comparison of Thermometric Scales 53,54,55 

,, Determination of, with Fischer's Calorimeter ... 165 

Tensile Strength of Papers 167 

Terra Alba as a Loading, &c. 180 

Testing Papers 176 

Thermal Unit, Definition of ' 56 

Tin Salts 132 

Tissue Paper Trade Customs, American Appendix 

Tower System, Manufacture of Bisulphites by 95 

Towers, Mitscherlich's 96 

Trade Customs, British 37 

,, ,, American (Book Papers) 39 

,, ,, ,, (Tissue ,, ) - ... Appendix 

Twaddell, Baume, and Sp. gr., Comparison of ... 197 

U 

Ultramarine Blue 136 

,, Examination of 152 

Umber 137 

Umpherston's Beaters, Particulars of 202 

V 

Vegetable Dyes 134 

Vellums (Binding), Sizes of 23 

Venetian Red 136 

Volume of Air required to burn Sulphur... 93,94 



w 



Wages, Table of 

Waste Soda Lyes, Contents of Soda in 

Water, Examination of 

,, Estimation of Hardness of 

Weight per Ream from Weight of Sheet in Grains 

Weights of Cubic Foot of Raw Materials 

,, and Measures 

,, Atomic 

,, (Molecular) of Compounds 

Weld 

White's Oscillating Strainer, Particulars of 
Wood-pulp, Mechanical or Ground, Manufacturing of 

,, Brown, Manufacture of 

Wood-pulps, Determination of Moisture in 

,, ,, Sampling 

Wood in Caustic Soda, Steam required for Digesting 
,, in Bisulphites ,, ,, ,, 

,, Cellulose (or Pulp), Soda process 

,, ,, ,, Sulphate process 

„ ,, ,, Bisulphite process 

,, ,, Manufacture 

Wrapping Papers per Ream, Equivalent Weights of 
Writing ,, ,, ,, ,, 
Sizes of 



4 
US 
163 
163 



34, 



196 

1 

138 

139 

134 

206 

123 

126 

175 

175 

64 

66 

87 

90 

92 

83 

29 



Yaryan Evaporator, Trials 

Yield of Pulp from Esparto 

,, ,, Straw 

,, ,, Wood by Soda process 

,, ,, ,, Sulphate process ... 

,, ,, ,, Bisulphite process .. . 



109, 113 

76 

... 78, 80 

88, 89, 90 

91 

Appendix 



Zeigelmeyer's Table of Yields of Pulp from Woods 



Calculators, Ready Reckoners, and Exchange Tables, 
see pages liii, liv, lv, lvi. 



AD VETiTIS KIM EN TS . 



BECKER & CO., 



F. E. R. Becker. . . . London. 
Georg v.d. Busche Jr. . . Hamburg, 



LIMITED. 



64, CANNON STREET, 

^_ LONDON, E.C. 

Manchester Office - - ROYAL EXCHANGE. 



The 
Largest Importers 




BECKER & CO.'S AGENCIES. 

Pulp Firms represented : 

Labro Traesliberi, Christiania. 

The Finest Mechanical Produced. 

The Leykam-Josefsthal Co., Vienna. 
The Macleod Pulp Co., Liverpool, 

Canada. 
Ramfos Traesliberi, Drammen. 

Skien Cellulosefabrik, Skien. 

Strong Sulphite Pulp, 

Skotselv Cellulosefabrik, Skotselven. 

Easy Bleaching Sulphite. 

Skdnvik Aktiebolag, Skonvik. 
Torpsharnmar Aktiebolag, Sweden. 
Vafos Brug, Krageroe. 
Vereiaigte Strohstoff-Fabriken, 
Cos wig. 
Bleached Straw Pulp, 



Ankers Traesliberi, Fredrikshald. 

Hot Ground P. A. Brand, 

Bjorka Aktiebolag, Hernosand. 

Dry Mechanical Lion Brand, 

Borga Cellulosefabrik, Finland. 

Chicoutimi Pulp Co., Chicoutimi. 

Canadian Hot Ground Spruce 

Forsmark Bruk, Forsmark. 

Easy Bleaching Soda Pulp 

Heen Traesliberi, Christiania. 

Konigsberger Zellstoff-fabrik, 

Actiengesellschaft. 
German Mitscherlich Pulp 

Aktiebolaget Kaukas Fabric, 

Helsiagfors. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Charles Walmsley & Co., 

LIMITED 

PAPERMAKERS' ENGINEERS, 

BURY, near MANCHESTER. 



@ik^ 




Makers of 



Paper Machines for producing all classes of Paper. 

Special Variable Speed Enclosed Engines. 

Beating and Refining Engines. 

Glazing and Finishing Calenders. 

Paper Damping Machines. 

Paper Cutting Machines. 

Slitting and Reeling Machines. 



Estimates given for complete Papermak/ng 
Plants. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Telegraphic Address : Telephone : 

"PORRITTS, RAMSBOTTOM." No. 100 Ramsbottom. 

Porritt, Brother & Austin, 

STUBBINS VALE MILLS, Limited, 

RAMSBOTTOM, NEAR MANCHESTER. 

MANUFACTURERS OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF 

and h vTt FELTINGS 

FOR PAPER MAKERS. 



Paper Stainers' Stout & Fine Surface Sieves, 
Stout and Fine Endless Blankets, 

Machine Blanketing and Lapping. 



ALSO OP 


PRESS BLANKETING AND TAPES 


For LETTERPRESS PRINTERS. 



PRESS FILTER CLOTHS, 

IN 

OOLLEN, LINEN, AND COTTON. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



T. J. MARSH ALL k C? 

ESTABLISHED 1792 



LTD. 



LARGEST 



MAKERS OF 



Campkell Work? 

Stoke M : ~~ 
^^ yxewin^ton 



R° LLS rtL0 

^ IN THE WORLU 



Do not hesitate to write or telegraph if you want a Dandy Roll quickly, as we have by far 
the largest Staff in the trade, and can turn out a Plain Dandy, Laid, Wove, or Spiral 
Laid in two days, and Watermarked in three or four days, if not too heavily Lettered. 




TELEGRAPH ^n^uzo^^&rzc/cm: 



Telephone (2 lines) : 79 and 1863 Dalston. 
Manufacturers the SMALLEST! PAPERMAKING MACHINE the world. 

Papermakers are invited to inspect one of these 

Machines running at our Works. _ 





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SHfeife^'i^h 


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' ",S'. 


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rif&fiif! 



-iCv-'*-- ^ 



•^ 5.. 



FRONT PERSPECTIVE. 



Analytical and Technical Laboratories, 

Aynsome, Grange-over-Sands, Lancs. 
Messrs. T. J. MARSHALL & CO. 
Dear Sirs,— Re MINIATURE FOURDRINIER MACHINE. 

The Workmanship of the Miniature Paper-making Machine which I 
had from you I consider excellent, and a machine of thistype is absolutely 
indispensable to anyone who contemplates carrying out investigations and 
researches for. the paper trade. 

Believe me to be, dear Sirs, yours very truly, 

(Signed) J. Stewart Remington..!. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



W. G. Taylor & Co., 



Agents for - 
all Materials 
used in the 
Manufacture 
of Paper. - - 



LIMITED 

126, Queen Victoria Street, 
LONDON, EC, 

BRANCH OFFICES at— 

5, CROSS STREET, MANCHESTER. 

AND 

29, ST. ANDREW SQ., EDINBUR8H. 



SODA WOOD PULPS. 

Bleached and Unbleached. 

SULPHITE - - 

WOOD PULPS. 

Bleached and Unbleached. 

MECHANICAL - 

WOOD PULPS. 

ESPARTO. 

African and Spanish. 

STARCH and SIZINGS. 
CHEMICALS. 



Sole Agents for the United Kingdom for 
the Celebrated Original and Improved 

WANDEL ROTARY STRAINER 



WANDEL'S MACHINE WIRES. 



Telegraphic Address: 
' FIBRE LONDON/ 



L >ndon Telephone : 
Nj, 8109 BANK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



ESTABLISHED 1836. 



Thos. Hardman & Sons, Ltd., 



:: Fernhill Mills, :: 

Telegrams : Telephones: 

"felts, bu R y." BURY, Lancashire. No 41 - BUBY 



Unbend, London. 



No. 62, Holborn 



London Office : 
FLEET HOUSE, FARRINGDON AVENUE, EC. 



Manufacturers of . . . 



MA FELTS Ke^ 



Also Makers of : 

Every Description of 

Cloths Used for 
Machinery Purposes. 



Couch Roll Covers, 
Second Press Felts, 
Wet and Dry Felts, 
Bag Flannels, &c, &c. 



Blankets, Lappings, &c, for Paper Stajnere, 
Printers and Lithographers, 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Jas. Milne & Son, 



Milton House Works, 

EDINBURGH 

4* 4 4 

:: MAKERS OF :: 



LTD. 



High-speed Paper Machines 

AND ALL ACCESSORIES. 



oi . 
w ex 

d H 




D 

D 
U 
< 
> 



eOUPER'S PATENT 
CONCENTRATOR. 



FOR BLEACHED OR UNBLEACHED HALF-STUFF 

Supersedes Presse-PSte, makes 
cleaner Paper, and secures an 
immense saving in Space, Time, 
Bleach, and Money, ;: :; 



Telegrams: "MILNE, EDINBURGH," 
(ABC, 4th and 5th Editions.) 



Telephone No. : 4892, 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Australian Alum Co., Ltd. 



Works : 
Runcorn, Cheshire. 

Telegrams : Telephone : 

"Alum, Runcorn." No. 38. 

London Office : 
20, Eastcheap, E.G. 



Manufacturers of the well-known 

"Special Alltm" for Papermakers 

and of the 

Purest Crystal Alum. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



The Leading Journal in Great Britain 

for the Paper Trade and Kindred Industries is 




THE WORLD'S 

WOOD PULP INDUSTRY, 



Market Reports on Papermaking Materials, with Current 
Quotations, Lists of Imports and Exports, Illustrated 
Descriptions of Mechanical Appliances, Technical Articles 
by leading Experts, Commercial Intelligence, and all the 
most up-to-date news relating to the Paper, Pulp, Engineering, 
and Allied Industries. 

ITS VALUE TO ADVERTISERS! 

"This gradual increase of yearly output we attribute largely to inquiries 
received through the medium of our advt. in your influential and 
interesting Journal." — The Via Gellia Colour Co., Matlock Bath. 

TESTIMONY AS TO CIRCULATION! 

"We have found your Paper at every mill with whom we are doing 
business, both "here and on the Continent." — M. Relph & Co., Paper 
Merchants, London. 

PUBLISHED EVERY FRIDAY. 

Subscription, £l per annum, post free to any part of the world. 



Advertisement Rates on application to the Publishers — 

W. JOHN STONHILL & CO., 

58, SHOE LANE, LONDON, E.C 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Sir James Farmer 

and Sons, Limited, :: i: 

established 1852. ENGINEERS and 
— MA CHIN IS TS . 

Adelphi Iron Works, Salford, 

MANCHESTER. 

Telegrams : Telephone : 

"AGRICOLA, MANCHESTER." No. 1074 CENTRAL. 

Code: ABC (5th Edition). 



MAKERS of — 

CALENDERS 



FOR 



Papermakers, 

AND OF EVERY DESCRIPTION 

OF 

CALENDER 

BOWLS. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THE PATENT "EXPRESS" 

Self -clamp Guillotine 

IS UNEQUALLED FOR 

Speed, Holding, and Cutting Power. 



Holds all kinds of Material without slipping. 



3,000 MACHINES SOLD. 
WRITE FOR LISTS TO- 

FURNIVAL <S CO., Ltd., 

REDDISH, STOCKPORT. 

32, St. Bride Street, or 215, West George Street, 

LONDON, E.C. GLASGOW. 



Telegraphic Address : Telephone No. : 

CHINA. MANCHESTER. 4985 CITY. 



W. Singleton Birch & Sons, Ltd., 

15, UPTON ST., 

:: London Road, :: 

MANCHESTER. 



CHINA CLAYS ^J^mIZZZ 

o "ii •. i an d Granton. 

bpecially bmted 

for Papermaking. Devonshire and Cornwall. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Joseph Porritt & Sons, 




Te % a SRR,TT HELMSHORE, 

HELMSHORE, ^ M^^ .. 

1 elephone iNo. 4. 



Manufacturers of 1"^ »■■% w ^^^^ ^^ F"n¥" 




FELTS 



Papermakers 

TRADE MARK 

REGISTERED. 

AND ALL KINDS OF WOOLLEN, LINEN, AND 
COTTON CLOTHS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

W. Friedlaender, Ltd., 

48, Mark Lane, 
LONDON, E.C. 

Telephone No. : ^ Telegraphic Address : 

11128 CENTRAL. * "LANDFRIED, LONDON. 

WOOD PULPS 



Sulphite and Sulphate. 
Extra strong and easy bleaching. 



ADVERTISEMENTS . 



XXXIX 




THE 



"NEW 



CONQUEROR 



99 



IS BY FAR THE 



Best Self-clamp Guillotine 

FOR 

Papermakers. 

25% to 33J% Heavier than the Heaviest of any other 

make. 

Admits and Cuts more Paper, and 

Requires much less power to run it. 

Apply for our Special Explanatory Book, giving ample evidence of the 
Popularity of this Famed Cutter. 

John Greig & Sons, Engineers, Edinburgh. 



Xl ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Great Beam Clay Co., 

The West of England 

a c . j n Head Office: 

ina otone and L.lay 

Co., Ltd. ST> AUSTELL. 



THE LARGEST PRODUCERS 

OF 

CHINA CLAY 



FOR 



Paper-making and Coating 

OF THE FINEST QUALITIES. 



Managing Directors: 

T. M. STOCKER and HENRY STOCKER, 

ST. AUSTELL. 

Telegrams: "STOCKER. ST. AUSTELL." Telephone No. 121. 



DEPOTS:— 

RUNCORN. WESTON POINT. GARSTON. 

FLEETWOOD. MANCHESTER. ROCHDALE. 

LEITH. BO'NESS. GLASGOW. 

CHATHAM. 

MANCHESTER OFFICE : Northern Assurance Buildings, Albert Square. 

Telegraphic Address : " Beamily, Manchester." Telephone No. 2818 Cily, 



ADVEKTISEMENT. 6 ". xli 



NOTICE TO PAPER MAKERS. 

In view of increasingly KEEN COMPETITION, 
it is MOST IMPORTANT that your Power 
Plant should be capable of giving 

MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY 

with 

MINIMUM k N N S Dw L oRK:gg COST. 

Our knowledge of Papermakers' requirements is based on 
many years' experience, during which we have installed 
Power Plant, Gearing, and Accessories for numerous 
Customers ; we therefore feel sure that 

We can meet your requirements. 



When in the market for ALTERATIONS or 
ADDITIONS to your Plant, kindly communicate 
with us. 

We supply : 

BOILERS, SUPERHEATERS, = = 
ECONOMISERS, STEEL, COPPER, 
and CAST = IRON PIPE WORK. 

highest class steam engines fitted 
with drop, corliss, or piston valves. 

Condensing plant of any type, also 

General machinery, including 
shafting, gearing, pedestals, pullies. 



Estimates Prepared and Work Executed by : 

Douglas & Grant, 



Telephone No.: 
105 Kirkcaldy. 

Telegrams : 

KIRKCALDY, dotolas 



SCOTLAND. 



KIRKCALDY. 

A.i. ABC, and 

Engineering- Codes 



xlii ADVERTISEMENTS. 



BERNBR & NIELSEN. 





LONDON : 




6I&62,GRACEGHURCHST. Tl M . 

' Telegraphic 


London Telephone : 


E. C. Addresses ; 


Central 


"Berner, London' 


No. 13830. 


MANCHESTER : " Berne /- 

Manchester 




17, EXCHANGE BUILDINGS, 




ST. MARY'S GATE. 



WOOD PULPS. 

Telegrams : 'Phone : 

"ADAPTABLE, LONDON." 1949 TOTTENHAM. 

ARE YOU USING . . . 
Trotman'S Patent Interchangeable 

Dandy Bolls and Moulds 

Now in use in France, Belgium, Holland, 

Italy, Austria, Germany, United States, 

and the majority of the best Mills in the 

United Kingdom. 

ALSO SUPPLIED TO THE BANK OF 

ENGLAND, ENGLISH GOVERNMENT, 

&c, &c. 



FOR PARTICULARS, WRITE 



Works, Meads Road, Wood Green, London, N. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



W. B. DICK & CO., 

33-35, EASTCHEAP, LTD - 
- - LONDON, E.C. - - 



Refiners and "Distillers 

OF 

Oils, Greases, 

Turpentines. 



Telegraphic Address . Telephone Nos. : 

DICOTTO, LONDON." 6565 and 13826 CENTRAL. 



BERGER & WIRTH, 

"CLIFTON BUILDINGS," 

WORSHIP STREET, LONDON, E.C 

Makers of every description of high-class 

PRINTING 

INKS 

DRY ROLLER 

COLOURS COMPOSITION 



xliv ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Telegrams— "SONICA, LONDON." Telephone No.— 5420 BANK (Nat.). 

The Stationery World - - 
Printing and Allied Trades 

Keeps its readers fully abreast of the times on all 
Matters pertaining to the Stationery, Printing 

and Allied Trades, and also 
The latest Novelties in the Fancy Goods World. 



It is well Illustrated, and printed on Art Paper. 



SUBSCRIPTION PRICE, 5/= PER ANNUM, 
post free to any part of the world. 



The Paper Box and Bag Maker, 

INCLUDING THE 

BOOK=BINDERS' JOURNAL, 

is solely devoted to 

PAPER BOX, BAG MAKING, AND BOOK- 
BINDING INDUSTRIES, AND ALLIED TRADES, 



Well Illustrated, and printed on Art Paper. 



It deals with the latest movements in these Industries, and also 
with new patents taken out in connection with the same. 



It is sent to any address, post 
;: free, for a year, for 6/= :: 



Both the above Journals are excellent media for Advertisements. 
Tariff will be sent on application to Chief Offices, &c. — 

S. C. PHILLIPS 6 CO., 

47, CANNON STREET, LONDON, E.C. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. xlv 



Telegrams— " SONICA, LONDON." Telephone No.— 5420 BANK (Nat.). 

IT WILL PAY YOU TO SUBSCRIBE TO 

The Paper Maker The, a d j ndnt 

AND Practical Journal 

British Paper Trade Journal. Pape ° r r l T e rade 

Its appearance is eagerly looked forward to each month 

throughout the world for its 

UP-TO-DATE NEWS, which is - - - 

WELL PRINTED ON ART PAPER, and is 

BEAUTIFULLY AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 



THE SUBSCRIPTION PRICE IS 12/6 PER ANNUM, POST FREE, 

and includes a copy of the Annual Number of the 

Paper Maker, which is published singly at 2/6 per copy. 

Each Number contains nearly 200 pages, and it is the largest and 

most important organ of the Paper Ti-ade in the world. 



Phillips' Paper Trade Directory 

OF THE WORLD 

is an International Publication which 

Contains lists of the Paper and Pulp Mills in every 
country of the world, and also 

Other matters of special interest to everybody 
engaged in the Paper Trade. 



PUBLISHED UNDER REGISTERED TITLES IN 

ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, SPANISH, SWEDISH, 

AND NORWEGIAN. 

The new edition is in course of publication, 

The Subscription Price is 15/6, post free. 



Advertisers will find this work a most valuable medium for their 
announcements. 



Chief Offices:— 

S. C. PHILLIPS 6 CO., 

47, CANNON STREET, LONDON, E,C 



Xlvi ADVERTISEMENTS. 



William Makin & Sons, 

- r G A Attercliffe Steel Works, :: :: 

ESTABLISHED 1736. 33, DARNALL ROAD, 

^9r SHEFFIELD, ENGLAND. 

National Telephone 782. Telegrams : "Makin, Sheffield." 



Papermakers' 

STEEL a 
BRONZE 



STEEL and HP 1 

1 oois. 



Illustrated Catalogue & Price Lists, in French & English, on demand. 



Telephones : 4307 \ r> i Telegrams and Cables : 

44|] j-mnk. "MAGASINS, LIVERPOOL." 

ABC, Engineering, and Lieber Codes. 

Arthur S. Porter & Co., 

Manufacturers of all Classes of Cotton 
Cleaning Waste and Sponge Cloths, 

FLAGS AND BUNTING, 

CODE SIGNALS, 
LETTERED FLAGS, &c. 




II RITE FOR SAMPLES 
■ ■ AND PRICES. 



Head Office:- 

18a, SOUTH CASTLE ST., LIVERPOOL. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



xlvii 



ENDELL 

j, AND SONS, 

NORFOLK IRONWORKS, 
Shoreditch, London. 





MAKERS OF 



The only Silver Medal and First Class 
Certificate awarded for Knives. 



Guillotine Knives, Rotary Knives, 

Millboard Shears, Shaped Cutters 

For all Makes of Machines. 




All kinds of Knives Ground and Sharpened. 



Write for Price List. 



Xlviii ADVERTISEMENTS. 



fi. R. Whitehead & Bros., 

LIMITED, 

Royal George Mills, 

GREENFIELD, 

Telegraphic Address : Near OLDHAM. Telephone: 

"Whiteheads, Greenfield, Yorkshire." No. 16; Mossley. 



Manufacturers of every description of . . 

PAPERMAKERS' FELTS. 



PAPER STAINERS' SURFACE SIEVES. 



Letterpress and Copperplate Printers' 
:: :: BLANKETS and TAPES. :: :: 



The Berlin Aniline Co., Ltd. 

Sole Importers oj the Products of the 

Actien-Gesellschaft fur Anilin-Fabrikation, Berlin S.O. 36. 



Manufacturers of all kinds of 

ANILINE COLOURS 

FOR 

Paper, Wool, Silk, Cotton, Linen, Jute, &c. 

Leather, Furs, Straw, Pigments, Spirit Lacquers, Oils, Grease, Wax, &c. 



Offices in the United Kingdom 
MANCHESTER : 26, Princess St. 

Telegraphic Addrtss: "Aniline. 

Telephone No. 7903. 
BRADFORD : Q, Charles Street. 

Telegraphic Address: "Aniline. 

Telephone No. 48. 
LONDON : 20, Eastcheap, E.C. 

Telegraphic Address: " GreefF." 

Telephone No. =425 Avenue. 



GLASGOW : 79, West Nile Street. 

Telegraphic Address: "Decimal." 

Telephone Nos. 1058 and 3906. 
BELFAST : 29, Franklin Street. 

Telegraphic Address : '' Kirkleigh." 

Telephone No. 329. 
LEICESTER : 10, St. Stephens Rd. 

Telephone No 700. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



xlix 



Dick's Original 

Balata Belting. 



The Most 

Powerful Driving 

Belt in the 

World. 

Durability. 
Efficiency. 
Reliability. 
Economy. 




In General Use 
in all Countries. 

True Running. 
No Stretch. 
No Slip. 

Unrivalled 
in Damp 
Situations, 



It is important to note the Trade Mark stamped on each Belt every few feet 




It is an admitted fact that, by reason of its great durability and general efficiency, 
DICK'S BALATA BELTING is the most economical and labour-saving Belt manufactured. 
Testimonials to this effect, Samples, Price Lists, and Addresses of nearest Representa- 
tives in any part of the World, may be had from the PATENTEES AND MAKERS— 



R. & J. DICK, Ltd., 



Greenhead 
Works, 



GLASGOW. 



City Office-46, ST. ENOCH SQUARE, GLASGOW. 

46 Watling Street, LONDON, E.C. 10, Corporation Street, MANCHESTER. 
8, Dale End, BIRMINGHAM. 8, Neville St., NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. 

5, New Station Street. LEEDS. 12, North Bridge, EDINBURGH! 
16, Redcliff Street, BRISTOL. 43, Henry Street, DUBLIN. 

16, North Street, BELFAST. 
And at Paris, Vienna, Fiume, Duisburg (Germany), Moscow, Horgen (Switzerland), Milan 
Brussels,. Rotterdam, Bilbao, Lisbon, Copenhagen, Chrisliania. Gothenburg, Constanc 
nople, Athens, Smyrna, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Singapore Penang. Bangkok (Siam), 
Rangoon (Burma), Colombo (Ceylon), Shanghai, Yokohama, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane 
Fremantle, Adelaide, Dunedin, Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington (N.Z.), Johannes 
burg, Cape Town, Bulawayo, Salisbury (Rhodesia), Alexandria (Egypt), Montreal, 
Victoria (B.C.), Mexico City, Progreso (Mexico), Rio de Janeiro, San" Paulo (Brazil), 
Valparaiso, Lima, Buenos Ayres, Demerara, Trinidad, &c, also at New York and 
Agencies throughout U.S.A., and at Montreal and Agencies throughout the Dominion. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



READ, HOLLIDAY, & SONS, Ltd., 

HUVDERSFIELV, 

Make a full range of Coal Tar Colours for paper, 
including — 



AURAMINE. 
BRILLIANT GREEN. 
MAGENTA. 
SOLUBLE BLUE. 
METHYLENE BLUE. 



METHYL VIOLETS. 
MALACHITE GREEN. 
SAFFRANINE. 
METANIL YELLOW Y, 
ORANGE 2R. 



A. Edmcston & Sons, Ltd., 

SPRINGFIELD WORKS, PATRIGROFT, Nr. MANCHESTER. 



Calenders 




Patent 


for Paper. 


MAKERS OF 


Friction 


-r 


*"^ 


Clutches 


Book-Back 




and 


Cloth. 




Couplings 


-i- 


FOR 


fdr 


Leather 
Cloth. 


PAPERMAKERS' 


Driving 
Calenders 


Embossing, 
&c. 


CALENDERS. 


and 

other 

Machines. 



PRICES ON APPLICATION. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



W. Green, Son & Waite, 

WATERMARKING OF EVERY KIND. 




Grand Prix, Gold Medals and Highest Awards 
at all Exhibitions entered. 

MACHINE WIRES, MOULDS, &c, &c. 

134, ALBANY ROAD, LONDON, S.E. 



A. B.C. MONEY-SAVING BOOKS 

OF 

RAILWAY RATES 

and C ARRYING CHA RGES. 

The following Books have already been issued : — 

RAILWAY RATES (in A.B.C. form) 

From the following Centres in the United Kingdom to all Stations and 
Ports in Great Britain and Ireland, and the Continental Ports. 



Liverpool 

Bristol 

Cardiff and Barry 
Newcastle-on-Tyne 

Walsall 

Leeds 



30/- 

25/- 
22/- 
25/- 
21/- 
25/- 



Birmingham 25/- 

London ... 30/- 

Sheffield ... 25/- 

South Staffordshire and 

East Worcestershire 42/- 
Hull, Goole, and Grimsby 30/- 



Other Books in course of preparation. The Books are printed in clear 
Roman type and bound in red cloth covers. 

n checking - Railway Accounts with the aid of these books all overcharges in Railway 
] Accounts are detected, thus saving the cost many times over within a short period. 
An efficient staff of Railway Rate experts are continually engaged in checking Railway 
Accounts tor Arms desirous of having their accounts checked on commission on savings 
or fixed sums as agreed. 

For further particulars apply to THE RAILWAY AND SHIPPING 
JOURNAL PUBLISHING CO., 12, Cherry St., Birmingham. 
Read the RAILWAY AND SHIPPING JOURNAL. 

2/6 Post Free per Annum. Send on Subscription. 



lii ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Kidder Slitter 
and Rewinder 



■ 


■ 




Made in all sizes 




for all purposes. 


THE 


MOST POPULAR 


l AND 


MOST RELIABLE 


. RE-REELING MACHINE 


IN THE WHOLE WORLD. 




Takes all kinds of 




stock from tissue 




paper to asbestos. 


■ 


■ 



John Haddon&Co. 

Proprietors of the Caxton Type Foundry 

Salisbury Sq., London, E.G. 



Advertisements. liii 



WAGES CALCULATORS. 



50 



51 



52 



Hours a Showing results for each Quarter with each 
Week. Hour at sight without addition, at rates 

of 2/6 to 45/-, advancing by 6d. Gradations to 40/-, 
thence by Shillings. Royal 8vo. Price 5/-. By 
post, 5/3 

Do. At rates from 2/- to 50/- per week, advancing by 3d. 
. Gradations to 8/-, thence by 6d. to 20/-, and by 
1/- to 50/-, from 1 hour to 231 hours. Price 2/6. 
By post, 2/9 

X Do. At rates advancing by 6d. From 6d. to 60/-. Royal 
2 8vo, Cloth. Price 3/9. By post, 4/- 



63^1 Advancing by 1/- Gradations from 4/- to 50/-. Crown 

53 >- Do. oblong 4to, Cloth. Price 2/- each. By post. 
54J 2/3 

55J Do. Showing results from I to 70 hours at rates 2/6, 3/-, 

3/6, 4/-, advancing by Shillings to 48/- and 50/- 
Royal 4to, doth. Price 5/6. By post, 5/10 

48> At rates of 5/- to 36/6 per week, advancing by 6d. 

54 Gradations, with OVERTIME AT TIME-AND- 
60 t, A-QUARTER, OTHER PAY AT TIM E-AND- 
63 f Do - HALF. Demy 8vo, Cloth. Price 2/6 each. By 
66 I post, 2/8; or bound together in one volume, 7/6. 
72j By post, 7/9 

Also 

HOURS AND QUARTER - HOURS 

CALCULATOR, to 60 hours, and by FARTHINGS 

to 8d. per hour. Demy 8vo. Price 4/6. By post, 4/9 

Also 

BOOK containing rates at 3d. per hour, advancing by 
FARTH I NGS to 1/- per hour, and by Quarter-Hours 

from 1 to 72| hours. Demy 8vo. Price 3/6. By post, 
3/9 

60 \ Do. At rates from 6/- to 40/- per week, advancing by 1/« 
72 / Gradations, also a rate of 1 7/6 per week. Price 2/-. 

By post, 2/3 

53) Wages Cards advancing by Shillings from 5/- to 10/-, 

54 >• Do. thence by 6d. to 20/-, and to 36/- by Shilling 

60) Gradations, and to 50/- by 2/6 Gradations. Price 

1/6 each. By post, 1/9. Size of Cards, 16 J in. x 11 in. 

M c CORQUODALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.C. 



liv ADVERTISEMENTS. 



EXCHANGE TABLES. 

By A. LECOFPRB. 

GERMAN to ENGLISH MONEY. 

At rates from 20.30 to 20.70 Marks per £ Sterling, from 

1 Pfennig: to 300,000 Marks, advancing by J of a Pfennig. 

Price 15s. By post 15s. 4d. 

FRENCH to ENGLISH MONEY. 

At rates from 25 to 26 frs. per £ Sterling, advancing by \ of 
a Centime. Price 21s. By post, 21s. 5d. 

AUSTRIAN and DUTCH MONEY to and 
from ENGLISH. 

Austrian and Dutch Florins (quoted in "\ 
Kreutzers or Cents) to English Money at I , r,, • 
rates from Flc.ins 11.90 to 12,40 per £ Sterling, }•/ fon nno 
advancing by gradations of i of a Kreutzer or of w iW,uw 
a Cent J 

Dutch Florins (quoted in Stivers) to English \ 
Money at rates from Florins 12.0 to Florins (_ » above 
12.8 Stivers, advancing by gradations of | of a ( 
Stiver ) 

English Money to Dutch Florins (quoted ) -, , 
in Stivers) at similar rates to above, advancing by > tn x-c'nnn 

gradations of % of a Stiver ... .- ) lo *°' uw ' 

Third Edition. Price 15s. By post 15s. 4d. 

UNITED STATES. 

Dollars (quoted in Cents) to English Money at rates from 

$4.75 to $4.95 per £ Sterling ; advancing by I 1 S of a Cent 

on amount 5 ? from 1 Cent to $300,000. 
English Money to Dollars (quoted in Cents) at rates as 

above; advancing by i\ of a Cent on amounts from Id. to 

£40,000. 
Dollars to English Money (with rates quoted in pence) 

at rates from 48 to 50 Pence per $ ; advancing by -J s of a 

Penny on amounts from 1 Cent to $300,000. 
English Money to Dollars (with rates quoted in Pence) 

at rates as above ; advancing by -^ of a Penny on amounts 

from 1d. to £40,000. 

This book contains no less than 670 pages of rates. 
Second Edition. Price 25s. By post 25s. 6d. 

ENGLISH MONEY to and from EASTERN 
CURRENCIES. 

Sterling into Rupees at rates from Is. 3|d. \ Is. to 
to is. 4|fd. Rates by 1-32nd of a Penny/ £10,000. 

Rupees into Sterling at rates as above. \1 to 100,000 
Rates by 1-32nd of a Penny / Rupees. 

English Money into Yens, Piastres, and) - , 
Taels, at rates from Is. 9d. to 3s. 3|§d. [■ "i ™ 
Rates by 1-16th of a Penny ) ^xu.uuu 

Yens, Piastres, and Taels into English) , tn -,nnnfxr. 
Money at rates from Is. 9d. to 3s. 3}gd. } * Jl™£ 

Rates by 1-16th of a Penny J as a00ve - 

Price 21 S. By post 21s. 6d. 



M c C0RQU0DALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.C. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



Exchange Cards. For C B?rt e 4 in IJi va?Ss FR0M 

By M. B. COTSWORTH. 
Kilogrammes and tons, ewts., qrs., lbs., at 1,016 Kilos per ton; also 

Kilogrammes (Transit) at 1,015 Kilos per ton. 
Litres and Gallons and gallons, quarts, pints (both on one card). 
Metres and Yards and yards, feet, inches. 
Russian Poods and tons, cwts., qrs., lbs. ; and 
Russian Poods and Pfund and tons, cwts., qrs., lbs. 
Dollars (at 4.80) and sterling. Reverseof card shows tons, cwts., qrs., lbs. 

reduced to lbs. 
EXCHANGE Cards show comparative values of^Foreign Coins in Decimals 

sterling. Francs and Lire at 25 to 25 - 99 Francs, Milreis, Pesetas, Roubles, 

Rupees, Taels, Yen, Dollars; also Austrian, Dutch, Scandinavian, and 

German currency at various rates. 

Price 1/6 each card. Pood Cards, 2/» Postage 3d. extra. 

DECIMALS CARD showing Decimals of a Shilling, Foot or other Unit in 
12ths and Fractions of 12ths. Reverse of Card shows 

Equivalent Multipliers for Adjusting the Fluctuations in Exchange 
Values of Money constants for British and Metric Compound 
Measures. Price 1/6 By Post, 1/9 

Factory Book-Keeping for Paper-Makers. 

By JOSEPH MACNAUGHTON. 
A system of book-keeping and costing applicable to the operations of a paper 
mill, and devised to meet practical requirements. 
Crown 4to. Price IP/- By Post, 1Q/3 

TABLES of WEIGHTS of PAPERS. 

For the EXPORT and IMPORT Trade. 

Reducing English paper sizes to and from centimetres. 

Weight of grammes per square metre from weight of ream of 

480 or 500 sheets. 
Weight of ream of 480 or 500 sheets from weight of grammes 

per square metre. 
Title and Contents pages in English, French, and German. 
Price 2/6 By Post 2/7 

TABLES for reducing Measures of Length, Weight, 
Liquids, and for calculations of Equivalent Prices. 

s. d. 'j at Francs and Centimes, Kronen 

1 yard @ 1 Metre ! and Oere, Dollars and Cents, 

1 pound @ do. 1 Kilo f Marks and Pfennigs, Kronen 

1 gallon @ do. 1 Litre J and Hellern. 

Price 3/- By Post, 3/1 

Paper Trade Dictionary. _ ENGLISH-FRENCH. — 

Giving the correct translation of all Technical Words and Terms used in 
the Paper Trade. Price, post paid, !/■ 

German Paper Trade Dictionary. 

ENGLISH-GERMAN". GERMAN-ENGLISH. Giving the correct 

translation of all Technical "Words and Terms used in the Paper Trade. 

Price post, 1/- 

M c C0RQU0DALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.G. 



M ADVERTISEMENTS. 

RAILWAY AND COMMERCIAL GAZETTEER OF ENGLAND, SCOT- 
LAND, AND WALES. Sixteenth Edition. Thoroughly Over- 
hauled and Revised to date. Containing a complete list, 
arranged in alphabetical order, of every Town, Village, Parish 
and Place in Great Britain — over 45,000, including the most 
obscure hamlet, indicating opposite each the distance from 
London, and showing also the population, Post Offices, Money 
Order Offices, Telegraph Offices, wherever they exist, in addition 
to Line of Railway, Locality, Nearest Station, Distance from 
Station, with Through Rate Routes. This work is the Standard 
Work of Reference in all Railway Stations and Carriers' Depots. 
Royal 8vo, cloth. Price I OS. 6d. By post, I Is. 

IRISH COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY GAZETTEER. Demy 8vo, 
cloth. Price 2s. 6d. By post 2s. 9d. 

RAILWAY STATION MAP OF ENGLAND AND WALES. By John 
Aieey. Eighth and improved Edition of Airey's Railway Map of 
England and Wales. Showing all Stations, and distinguishing the 
Lines of the various Companies in Lithographed Colours. Prices 
in sheets, 7s. ; Mounted, in book form, |fs. ; Mounted, on rollers, 
I3s. Also other Railway Maps, particulars on application. 

OFFICIAL HAND-BOOK OF RAILWAY STATIONS, JUNCTIONS, 
COLLIERIES, WORKS, SIDINGS, &C, ON THE RAILWAYS 
IN THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND 
IRELAND. New and Enlarged Edition, containing upwards of 
35,000 entries. Showing Railway on which situated ; County, 
and exact position alphabetically arranged ; distinguishing 
Goods and Passenger Stations, and indicating Stations at which 
accommodation exists for loading and unloading Furniture Vans, 
Carriages, Portable Engines, Machines on Wheels, Live Stock 
and Horses, and Maximum Crane Power. By The Railway 
Clearing House. Post 4to, cloth, 8s. ; Interleaved and specially 
ruled, both horizontally and longitudinally, for the insertion of 
Bates, 188. Postage extra. 

GARDNER'S RAILWAY READY RECKONER AND RAILWAY 
CHARGES GUIDE. Sixth Edition. Containing Statutory Classifi- 
cation and Summary of Regulations respecting Goods carried by 
Goods Trains, showing class in which most articles of merchandise 
are placed and ways by which money may be saved. Also 
Railway Charges for Smalls under 3 cwts. at 3s. 4d. to 150s. 
per ton ; for consignments over 3 cwts. charged as 3 cwts. ; over 
3 cwts. at 3s. 4d. to 60s. per ton, rising by 5d. ; over 3 cwts. at 
60s. lOd. to 100s. per ton rising by lOd. ; over 3 cwts. at 101s. 8d. 
to 150s. per ton rising by Is. 8d. ; for Parcels by Passenger Trains 
(1898 reduced rates) ; for Returned Empties by Goods Trains. 
With a Ready Reckoner at per cwt., 1 lb. to 1 ton at 2s. 4d. to 
145s. per cwt., arranged so that any rate rising by 2d. per cwt. 
is seen at one opening of the book. And other useful information. 
Demy 4to, cloth, 4s. ; by post 4s. 4d. 

RAILWAY AND TRADERS' CALCULATOR. •Third Edition, Series 
R. and T. As prepared for the Railway Companies. Shows 24 
rates at one opening of the book, and contains Scale of Charges 
for Small Parcels, Direct Calculator for all weights from 1 lb. to 
1,000 tons from Id. to 20s. per ton to the nearest penny. The 
limits of Small Parcels Scales being shown in headlines for each 
rate. Table for calculating every penny rate to 100s. per ton, 
and giving the exact results of cwts., qrs. and lbs. together, with 
tons on the same page ; also a 5d. Grade Calculator, Railway 
Regulations, and General Information. Crown folio. Price 
1 0s. 6d. ; by post 10s. lid. 

DIRECT CALCULATOR, I.R., same as R. and T., but omitting part of 
the T a bles Price 7s. ; by post 7s. 5d* _^________ 

M°C0RQU0DALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.G. 



INDEX TO ADVERTISERS. 



Ivii 



INDEX TO ADVERTISERS. 





PAGE 


Alsing & Co., Ltd. 


viii 


Australian Alum Co., Ltd. ... 


xxxiv 


Barlow, E., Ltd 


lix 


Becker & Co., Ltd 


xxvii 


Berger&Wirth 


xliii 


Berlin Aniline Co., Ltd. .< 


xlviii 


Berner & Nielsen 


xlii 


Bertrams Ltd 


i, ii 


Birch, W. Singleton, & Sons, Ltd 


xxxvii 


Dick, R. & J., Ltd. 


xlix 


Dick, W. B.,&Co., Ltd 


xliii 


Douglas & Grant 


xli 


Edmeston, A., & Sons, Ltd 


1 


Farmer, Sir J., & Sons, Ltd. ... 


xxxvi 


Friedlaender, W. , Ltd 


xxx viii 


Furnival & Co., Ltd. 


xxxvii 


Gompertz, P. , & Co 


xviii 


Great Beam Clay Co. , Ltd 


xl 


Green, W., Son, & Waite 


Ii 


Greig, J., & Sons 


xxxix 


Haddon, J., & Co. 


lii 


Hardman, T., & Sons, Ltd 


xxxii 


Hyland.T., & Co 


lviii 


Kellner- Partington Paper Pulp Co., Ltd. ... 


V 


Kendell & Sons 


xlvii 


LieberCode 


xi 


Makin, W., & Sons 


xlvi 


Marshall, T. J., & Co., Ltd 


xxx 


Mather & Piatt, Ltd 


xiii 


McCorquodale & Co., Ltd 


... liii, liv, lv, lvi 


Milne, J., & Son, Ltd 


xxxiii 


Railway & Shipping Journal Publishing Co. 


Ii 


Read, Holliday & Sons, Ltd 


1 


Olive Bros., Ltd 


iii 


Paper Box and Bagmaker, The 


xliv 


Paper Maker, The 


xlv 


Paper Trade Review 


xxxv 


Payne & Sons (Otley), Ltd. 


ix 


Phillips' Paper Trade Directory 


xlv 


Pochin, H. D., & Co., Ltd 


viii 


Porritt Brothers & Austin, Ltd. 


xxix 


Porritt, J., & Sons ... 


xxxviii 


Porter, A. S., & Co. 


xlvi 


Smith Premier Typewriter Co 


iv 


Stationery World 


xliv 


Taylor, W. G., & Co., Ltd 


xxxi 


Trotman Dandy Co 


xlii 


Walmsley, C.,&Co.,Ltd 


xxviii 


Whitehead, R. R., & Bros., Ltd 


xlviii 


WysMulIer&Co 


xviii 



lviii ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THOS. HYLAND & CO 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

Rice Starch, 
I. C. Starch, 
Paper Finish, 

Dextrine, Farina, Sago Flour, &c. 



Also Manufacturers of 

FINE PIGMENT COLOURS, 

fast to [CHROME YELLOWS) A 

light [PRUSSIAN BLUEj SPECIAL1TY 
For the Paper Trade. 



COLOUR WORKS: 

Philip's Park Road, Bcswick, Manchester. 

STARCH WORKS: 

Old Bridge, Ayr. 

GUM AND DEXTRINE WORKS: 

61, Rose Street, Glasgow; AND MA B N E ^^ R 
28 6" 90 



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HECKMAN 

BINDSRY INC. 

^ JUL 90 



N. MANCHESTER, 
h^ INDIANA 46962 



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